7//H*r SCJW'JCB GOSS//: %5> H ARDWICKE'S SCI ENCE-GOSSI P: 1880. H ARDWICKE'S 4ip4£= ' : '' r '•'■'' - :<1 : Fig. 1. — Ovarium of Fresh-water Sponge : it, the foramen ; b, first growth of sponge; c, further extension of sponge. spreading on the bottom of the cell to which it was firmly fixed. In fig. 1, is shown an ovarium with the open foramen (at ft) out of which the sarcode had escaped and was spreading on the glass around the ovarium (l>). At this stage there was no spicula visible, but a further extension of the sarcode or growing sponge was seen (c). This new sponge is a very thin, gelatinous, semi- transparent matter, which spreads on the bottom of the glass, in which at first no spicula are seen, nor are the pores rendered distinct, but in about seven days the sponge had increased (as at fig. 2), and the grow- ing spicula become numerous and extended over the edge of the first formed part of the sponge (fig. 2,'e). The sarcode is, as it were, festooned from point to point of the spicula, as though the growing spicula carried out with them the extending sarcode (fig. 2,f), also the oscula, or excurrent canal is now formed (fig. 2, g,) and the incurrent pores at h. I have seen small portions of the sarcode separated from the growing new sponge, and in an amoeboid fashion and form move slowly away from it, and settling down at a distance from the ovarium, out of which no doubt they originally came, and have seen them growing as independent sponges, though very small with their oscula extended, from which the excurrent was seen to flow, as from the larger sponges. It is stated by Bowerbank, " that one of the few modes of the propagation of the spongiadse is by spontaneous division of the sarcode." The current of water seen to enter the pores (at //), and the excurrent out through the oscula \g) is caused by vibratile cilia with which the sponge cells are lined. These cilia I believe have never been seen in operation in situ. They are impossible to be thus seen, as they require high power of the microscope to detect them, and that cannot be applied to the pores of the living sponge, as the mass of the sponge is too thick. With a view of detecting, if possible, the cilia in a living sponge, ■-■•— e Fig. 2. — Ovarium ; e, growth of spicula ./, sarcode festooned on spicula ; g, oscula, or excurrent canal ; //, incurrent pores. Mr. G. Gulliver, jun., B.A. Oxon, brought his microscope, with a high power objective, and took out one of the small growing sponges from the cell in which I kept them, but the cilia could not be seen until he tore the sponge to pieces with needles, there- by breaking open the sponge cells, when the cilia were plainly shown, lashing whiplike, and becoming slower in motion as the death of the sponge ap- proached, when the cilia became both rigid and motionless (fig. 3,7). These openings, termed pores, are lined with sponge particles, each of which is provided with a vibratile cilium ; and as these cilia work in one direction towards the excurrent canal, they sweep the water out in that direction, and its place is taken up by fresh water, which flows in through the small apertures. The currents of water carry along such matter as are appropriated by the sponge particles lining the passages. I have observed in close proximity to the new growing sponge, some HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. very small bodies of sarcode, somewhat irregular in form, and throwing out spines similar to Actinophrys Fig. 3. — Torn sponge, showing cilia at/. sol, though I could not make out that they had any actual connection with the sponge, but most likely they have. James Fullagar. THE "SCIENCE-GOSSIP" BOTANICAL EXCHANGE CLUB. IT is a pleasure again to present our readers with a report of the Science-Gossip Botanical Exchange Club for 1879. Sixteen members joined our ranks for the season, most, we might say, sent in the usual parcel. We have collected plants for herbaria for well-nigh twenty-five years, yet, we confess, the past summer was the most disastrous we ever knew. After wandering many miles in search of rarities, then taking every care to dry them fit to be seen, we have wofully failed ; many of our best specimens became mildewed whilst in the press, until at length, in despair, we gave up the attempt. This unfortunately is the experience of every collector we have con- versed with : under these trying circumstances, no wonder so few members joined the club. Well, never mind, there is a bright side ; they say every dark cloud has a silver lining. We heartily con- gratulate the members in having the best return parcel we have ever distributed ; perhaps not quite so large as during previous years, but what it lacks in quantity is more than made up in quality. Some few of the selected specimens we never met with before; such as Origanum prismatiatm (Gaud.) and Euphrasia montana (L.) will be welcome additions to all our local herbaria. Another matter deserves especial notice : the club is bringing forward several promising and talented young men who have ex- pressed their gratitude for the aid thus afforded them in their work ; it has a cheering influence to feel we have sympathising helpers. Before mentioning a few localities from which specimens have been recently gathered, we give the explanations of some of the members. Mr. R. Turner states : " Potamogeto?n nitens (Weber). Bute is given in the text-books, as one of the few localities for this plant. Kennedy's 'Clydesdale Flora' gives Loch Ascog, as the station for the species in Bute. The plant found in that loch differs however from that which has been determined as true nitens in • certain other cases. It grows abundantly in the loch, along with heterophyllus, from which it differs mainly in the absence of floating leaves." (We have sent this in all the parcels. It differs widely from nitens collected in river Tay. We hope to have the opinions of some of our members.) "Symphytum tuberosum is abundant in various localities within a few miles of the city of Glasgow, and is not un- common over the whole of the Clyde district. Salix Helix (L.) grows along the banks of Clyde in many places above Rutherglen. The female flowers seem to be typical, or nearly so, but the flowers of what is usually considered the male form of the same plant which grows in the same stations agree with descriptions of S. rubra rather than with that of S. Helix. Vicia Bobartii is veiy common in Bute." Mrs. Edwards notes, "The inclosed species of Daphne Laureola is found in Needwood Forest, Staffordshire ; the Mezereon is also stated to be met with in the same locality." We should be glad if Mrs. E. found the report of the Mezereon correct ; it is very limited in its distribution in Britain. Mr. Curnow states, " Mr. Ralfs and self have this autumn been hunting up the Euphrasias, and making them out from a French work. I fell in with one glandulose, the most distinct form, which we have decided as E. montana ; of this I have sent a dozen specimens. We also believe there are three other forms, viz. E. tetraquetra, a coast species ; E. cuprea, the heath plant, and E. gracilis, on hillsides. We have also met with another variety, which Newbould names E. sylvatica : it has large and long flowers. Another plant from Stroud we take to be E. ericetorum." Mr. C. Bailey sends many specimens of the follow- ing, which will prove acceptable additions to the herbaria of our members. Origanum prismaticum (Gaud.), Folkestone, Kent ; Daucus gummifer (Syme), Hastings, Sussex ; Scirpus compadus (Kis.), Hastings ; Genista glabra, Matlock. Mr. A. Bennett, Senecio crassifolius (Willd.), Cork ; Atri- plex pedunculata (L), Storrer, Kent ; Corynephorus canescens, Caistor, Norfolk. The Rev. W. H. Painter forwards Orobauche Rapum (Th.), Bangor. Mr. Watkins, Caltha Guerangerii, Poulstone ; Tha- lictrum montanum, Scawfell ; Carex montana, Douard Hills. Mr. Jenner, Rumex pratensis, Lewes, Sussex; Seseli Libanotis, Seaford ; and Mr. Curnow, Iris tuberosa, Treveneth Farm, Penzance. We have not space to enumerate the whole of the rare species sent for distribution ; the above are sufficient to show the value of the club in helping to build up good local collections. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-.G OSSIP. HOW TO DOUBLE STAIN VEGETABLE TISSUES. HAVING exchanged a great number of slides of double-stained vegetable sections through the medium of the "Exchange" column in this journal, and as my slides appear to give general satisfaction, some of the recipients going so far as to compliment me upon them and asking how they are prepared, I think it will be a convenience to all parties in- terested, and to your readers also, if you will give me an opportunity of making known by means of this paper my method of double-staining vegetable tissue. In several papers I have seen on this subject a plan of using two aniline dyes (either together or separately) is given, but this method I cannot recommend, as, after some little experience, I find that all aniline dyes are more or less fugitive when used with vege- table tissue, and that consequently double-staining by this method resolves itself into using two dyes of as opposite colours as possible, one to be as little fugitive as can be obtained, and the other of an exactly con- trary character. If any vegetable section containing hard and soft tissue be dyed in such colours, either together or separately, and afterwards washed to a certain extent, it will be found that the more fugitive dye still lingers in the harder tissue, which gives it up less readily than the softer parts ; these latter still retaining the permanent dye, which usually is not so penetrating as the other dye, and is therefore over- powered by the same in the harder tissue. Were the section washed long enough, every trace of colour could be removed from all parts of the same. To be at all successful in double-staining by this method requires constant practice, so as to know exactly at what stage to discontinue washing the stained sections ; it is therefore not surprising if amateur mounters are not invariably successful when they try their hand at double-staining vegetable sections. Such being the case has led me to think whether it would not be much better to employ one permanent dye and one fugitive dye, using the former first, and the fugitive dye afterwards, this last being washed out again to any degree required. I now double-stain vegetable sections by means of carmine and aniline green, the former being a per- fectly "fast" dye, whereas the latter is extremely fugitive, more so than I wish, but is the only colour I know of at present which will answer the purpose required. Before commencing staining the sections they require to be decoloured ; this is important. The bleaching can be done by means of alcohol when the whole of the tissue and contents will be preserved, but slides prepared in this way will not be so effective as if the sections had been decoloured in a solution of chlorinated soda which is prepared as follows : Take two ounces fresh chloride of lime and dissolve same in one pint of distilled or clean rain water, shake well and allow it to settle, when somewhat clear add to it by degrees a strong solution of common washing soda until no precipitation takes place ; when the whole has thoroughly settled the clear supernatant liquor can be siphoned off and, if necessary, filtered. Pre- serve in well-corked bottles and in the dark, otherwise the solution will soon become useless. For the carmine dye, take — carmine 10 grains ; strong ammonia 10 or 15 grains ; and dissolve in a test tube with a little heat ; when the carmine is dis- solved add distilled water 200 grains. Filter and preserve in a well-stoppered bottle. For ordinary use portions of this dye will have to be diluted with four or five times its bulk of distilled water, but occasionally sections will be met with which require stronger solutions. The carmine dye for vegetable sections requires a "mordant," prepared as follows: (A) sulphate of alumina 10 grains ; dissolved in distilled water 200 grains. (B) Acetate of lead (sugar of lead) 30 grains ; dissolved in distilled water 600 grains. Add B to A till no precipitation takes place, then allow the whole to settle and siphon off the clean liquor which must be filtered and kept in a clean stoppered bottle. When required for use, dilute a portion with four or five additional equivalents of distilled water and filter afresh. Stronger solutions may occasionally be required, as in the case of the carmine dye. The aniline dye is prepared by simply taking — 3 grains of crystals of green aniline (the brand I use being "Iodine Green," prepared by Messrs. Brookes, Simpson, & Spiller, of London), crushing the same well in a mortar and dissolving in one ounce of abso- lute alcohol ; filter the solution and preserve in a stoppered bottle. The double staining of vegetable sections is divided into three distinct stages, viz. : — 1. Bleaching the sections ; 2. Staining in carmine ; and 3. Staining in green aniline and mounting. Any interval of time, days, weeks, or months, can take place between the first and second stage or the second and third. I will now describe these stages in succession. Bleaching the Sections. — An ounce or so of the chlorinated soda solution having been poured into a glass or wide-mouthed bottle and covered or corked, the sections are placed therein, but not too many, otherwise they will cling together and prevent the solution acting so quickly upon them ; when the sections are thoroughly bleached, which will generally be in from six to twelve hours, they must be taken out, lest they become disintegrated, and well-washed by being soaked in several changes of boiled water yet lukewarm, say, about five changes of water in the twenty-four hours, at the end of which time the HARDWICK&S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. sections must be placed in a solution of equal parts of alcohol and water, and kept there until wanted. Stainingin Carmine. — Transfer the required sections from the alcohol and water into the "mordant" diluted as directed, and leave them there overnight ; in the morning re-transfer them into the diluted carmine dye, leaving them there say an hour or so, when they must be well washed, first in clean dis- tilled water acidulated with thirty drops of nitric acid to the pint, and secondly in clean distilled water only, and finally preserved in alcohol for a couple of hours or until wanted. Staining in Green Aniline, and Mounting. — Take the carmine-dyed sections and place them in the green aniline dye, leaving them there at least twelve hours, after which they must be taken out one by one as each will have to be mounted as rapidly as possible : as each section is taken out place it for a few seconds only in clean absolute alcohol, washing very little of the green dye out as it is very fugitive, after this, transfer it into oil of cloves for such time only as will render the section translucent. By this time more of the green will have washed out, then take the section out, place it on a glass slip with the least possible quantity of the oil of cloves, as this evaporates most slowly ; add balsam dissolved in benzole and cover with a thin glass circle or square as preferred. Leave the slides for a day or so, by which time a large pro- portion of the benzole will have evaporated, when the slides can be dried off by placing them, as I do, on the top of a hot-water cistern with pieces of wood under them to moderate the heat if too hot, and leaving them there for a week or more as may be found requisite. By adopting this plan all risk of bubbles is avoided, and the balsam can be hardened to any degree, even until it becomes hard and brittle, allowing the cover to flake off on the least jar. To still further assist your readers in preparing good specimens of double-stained vegetable sections, I will add the following hints. The sections if possible should be cut while 'still moist and never be allowed to dry, as drying will in many instances quite spoil the tissue ; pith, for in- stance, will often crack and spoil all sections taken from it ; moreover it is much easier to cut clean good sections when the material is moist than if the same be dry. In transferring sections from one solution to another, I never use forceps, as it would be impossible to do so without very often spoiling the specimens, however light a hand I might have ; I use instead a flat spoon or ladle, made by beating out the end of a piece of one-eighth inch brass wire and well smoothing the edges. Platinum would be preferable for use with the acidulated water but is expensive ; in this case I use a glass stirring rod, but this is awkward to manage; a camel-hair pencil can be employed if preferred. Care must be taken to have all the solutions thoroughly clean ; they must be well filtered every now and then ; this rule does not apply so stringently with the solution of chlorinated soda, as this gets dirty by being used, besides which the sections get well washed when taken out of it. Occasionally the carmine dye and mordant will be found too weak if used diluted in the proportion as directed, as some sections take the dye very much better than others ; in such cases it will be necessary to increase the strength of both the mordant and the dye ; it is no use increasing the strength of the dye only, as the excess colour will not be permanent but will wash out immediately the section is placed in the water ; the fixing of the dye is entirely dependent upon the strength of the mordant employed. Carmine requires a mordant when employed with vegetable, but not with animal tissue. I have not properly tried it, but I have no doubt that a one per cent, solution of alum would answer as a mordant in place of the kind I employ, which is really nothing more or less than a solution of acetate of alumina, but I am not quite sure where I could obtain this chemical ready prepared. In conclusion I may say I think that if any of your readers will give this plan of double-staining a fair trial, they will find themselves able to prepare slides of double-stained vegetable sections which will give them every satisfaction ; they must however bear in mind that some preparations will be found much more effective than others, though the process em- ployed be exactly the same in all cases. As a rule, when slides are prepared for sale, the more effective and showy preparations have naturally the preference. H. M. NOTES ON SOME OF OUR SMALLER FUNGI. By G. E. Massee. THE species of Trichia when young resemble minute globules of cream ; afterwards they become dry and look like miniature puff-balls, sessile or stalked ; the peridium is irregularly torn at the top, spores and threads usually saffron or bright yellow. The spiral threads at once mark the genus. T. chry- sosperma, common on rotten wood, bark, &c, is most frequent, crowded, subsessile, more or less com- pressed, at first white, afterwards cinnamon yellow ; spores and threads yellow, the latter short and with pointed ends ; spiral markings strong. This genus belongs to the order Myxomycetes, the members of which are distinguished from all other plants by the absence of a cell-wall during their vegetative period ; it is only on the formation of fruit that the protoplasm breaks up into pieces, each surrounded by a cell-wall. This exceptional gelatinous early condition has led to much difference of opinion as to their true position, and Professor de Bary at one time considered them as animals closely related to the Gregarines, but in s HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. the mature state their threads and spores so closely resemble those of the puff-balls that their vegetable nature cannot be doubted. Various species of Trichia, none larger than a pin's head, not unfrequently support a still smaller parasite, only just visible to the unaided eye, Stilbum tomeiitosum. In Stilbum there is a lengthened stem formed of long threads compacted together ; at the top the threads are free and form a more or less round head, covered with small spores which are produced from the free ends of the threads forming the stem ; the spores are mixed with mucus. S. tomentosum is pure white, and resembles minute pins stuck into the Trichia ; the stems are connected by a byssoid mycelium. Another white species, S. vulgare, may be known by its habitat, decaying wood, the more globose head, and absence of mycelium connecting the stems. Stilbum, in common with a few other genera, offers an exception to the usual Fig."4. — Illustrations of some of our smaller Fungi : i, Trichia chrysosferma ; 2, spores and threads ; 3, Stilbum tomen- tosum, natural size; 4, Stilbum tomentosum, magnified, showing habit ; 5, Stilbum tomentosum, more highly mag- , nified. characters of the family Hypomycetes in having the fertile threads more or less compacted to form a common stem ; usually the fertile threads are free, and bear the spores at their tips ; such forms are known by the name of moulds, black or white, de- pending on the colour of the threads. The black velvety patches common on old wood and decaying stems belong to Helminthosporium, one of the black moulds. The species are numerous, and recognised by the spreading mycelium of black or brown jointed threads, from which spring similar erect ones, paler upwards, and producing at the tip, rarely laterally, lengthened spores, divided by a varying number of septa ; these are also usually some shade of brown. Another genus, equally common in similar situations, might easily be confounded with the preceding until examined under the microscope, when the structure is found to be very different ; this is Torula, belong- ing to the family known as Coniomycetes, characterised by the predominance of the spores over the vegetative part of the plant, and almost entire absence of threads, which are the great feature in the preceding family. In Torula the general covering and threads are en- tirely absent, and the spores are produced in straight rows, looking like strings of beads. T, herbarum is common on dead umbelliferous stems, forming black velvety patches with a tinge of olive-green ; the chains of spores are usually arranged in bundles, greenish by transmitted light, the constrictions slight. The term mould is too vague in its application to be of any use to the student, including forms belonging to the two primary divisions of fungi — those that have the spores growing from spicules and not contained in a sac of Fig. 5. — Illustrations of some of our smaller Fungi : 1, Torula lierbarum, natural size ; 2, spores, magnified ; 3, Mucor fusiger and spores, both magnified ; 4, Pistillaria quisqui- laris, natural size ; 5, Agaricus (Pleurotus) septicus, natural size ; 6, Agaricus (Pleurotus) septicus, magnified ; 7, Typhula fili/ormis, magnified. which all the foregoing are examples, and those in which the spores are contained in a sac or ascus ; the sage-green mould common on jam, bread, &c, illustrates the latter section. Another species is not uncommon on the gills of decaying mushrooms during autumn ; the stem is very delicate, consisting o a single long undivided cell ; the head globose, at first white, then black and containing an indefinite number of fusiform or spindle-shaped spores, which are large for the size of the plant : this is Mucor fusiger ; the former, in which the spores are globose, M. mucedo. In Agaricus the species are generally large and often brilliantly coloured ; nevertheless the subgenus Pleu- rotus includes some minute and very beautiful forms, recognised by the stem being lateral or absent, and HARD WICKE 'S S CIENCE G OSS IP. ihe resupinate habit, that is, the plants are fixed by the cap to the matrix, and consequently the gills are uppermost. Agaricus (Pleurotus) septicus is common during the autumn on dead twigs and dung, white, three to four lines across, pileus or cap downy, margin incurved, gills rather distant with a yellowish tinge, stem thin, downy, sometimes absent. A. applicatus, similar in size and habit, is known by its ashy-grey colour and entire absence of stem. A white sub- gelatinous, more or less club-shaped fungus, three to four lines high, and sometimes slightly branched and •compressed, is not unfrequent on dead fern-stems ; this is Pistillaria quisquilaris. Typhula, an allied genus, is distinguished by the slender thread-like stem, which is distinct from the club-shaped head, bearing the hymenium or surface from which the spores originate. The species are all minute, and grow from dead stems or leaves ; most have a tubercle at the base of the stem. T. filiformis is half an inch in length ; stem very slender, decumbent, brown, without a tubercle, club-shaped, white. T. crythropns, somewhat similar in habit and appearance, is known by the tubercle at the base of the dark, nearly straight stem. ( To be contained.) A VISIT TO VESUVIUS DURING AN ERUPTION. By Dr. Johnston Lavis, F.G.S., &c. AMONGST the many natural phenomena none perhaps are of more interest to the geologist than those of active volcanoes. These, although numerous, taken as a whole, are widely distributed, and many are situated in somewhat obscure and uncivilized parts of the world. Of all the known active volcanoes, Etna and Vesuvius are the most celebrated by historic records of their various eruptions, especially the latter, which has destroyed whole towns, rendered desolate vast acres of cultivated land, and by which thousands have lost their lives. One would imagine that such examples as the destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii, and in later years of Torre del Greco, •would warn people from building in such close proximity. On the very lava stream that swept away Torre is now built the new town, and many feet above Herculaneum stands Resina, with its busy ■streets, shops, churches, under the dark, scowling brow of the huge fiery cone. Over lava streams not fifty years old are pretty villas, and fertile gardens. Who knows but that in a few hours all may be swept away by vast rivers of liquid fire ? On November 3, 1879, the mountain began to show slight signs of disquietude, which in the course of a day or two developed into a minor eruption ; a condition most suitable for study. From Naples were seen to issue clouds of smoke and vapour, and at night could be seen the streak of reddish light which denoted the crater full and the lava running over the edge and pouring down the northern side. This condition continued until the evening of the thirteenth, when it was observable that masses of pumice and lava were being blown some hundred feet into the air, and looking at a distance like the falling sparks of an exploded rocket. We determined therefore to make our visit on the following day. We started from Naples with a bright, sunny but cold morning, driving along the margin of that mag- nificent bay, and over the bridge of the Maddalena. Here stands the statue of St. Januarius, holding out his hand in a forbidding manner towards the moun- tain, over which he is accredited with some special power. Then on through Portici to Resina, built upon the mud produced by the ashes swept down by the rain derived from the condensed vapour of the great eruption, eighteen centuries ago last August. At Resina we added to our party the celebrated guide known as Andrea Maccaroni, who knows as much of Vesuvian minerals as he does of his own relations. We now, by the aid of three horses, com- menced the first part of the ascent, that is up to the observatory. The road winds over the lava streams of 1767, 1839, 1858, i860. In the course of two hours we arrived at our first stopping-place, having alighted at various roadside sections to break open some old rejected blocks. The observatory is well presided over by Professor Palmieri, who, although not present in person, was able to offer us his hospitality by means of a Morse telegraphic instru- ment in connection with the Professor's laboratory in the University of Naples. The observatory is a solidly constructed building of three stories in height ; it contains instruments espe- cially for the study of Vesuvius. It is built upon a ridge probably part of the edge of the ancient Monte di Somma, the ancestor of the modern moun- tain. Within the building is a small local museum, laboratory, private apartments, and the rooms for the various meteorological instruments, the most in- teresting among the latter being the seismographs for the graphical registration of both the vertical and horizontal movements of the subjacent land. They are so arranged that they ring an alarm bell and stop a clock at the exact moment of the very faintest earthquake. There are also the aerial electrometer, pluviometer and pluviograph, anemograph, baro- meters, and the various other necessary instruments, together with some for experiments on hot lava. The microphone has also been employed by Professor Palmieri, but I believe, with little advantage, using it to detect subterranean sounds. Having made this interesting examination of the observatory and its contents, and also fortified the inner man, we commenced our second but by far the most difficult part of the journey, on foot. Imagine a cone some 1000 feet high, composed IO HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. chiefly of loose ashes, with sides of an inclination between 36 and 50 . The guide generally conducts visitors over this loose and unstable foothold, so that as fast as one proceeds one returns half the distance. This fact we soon saw ; we therefore forsook the regular track for an old lava stream, which, although very rough and uneven, afforded a better foothold than the loose ejecta we had left. In the course of an hour and a half our path lay through vast clouds of steam issuing beneath our feet, produced by the subterranean heat evaporating the moisture that had fallen in the night. Mounting at last the edge of the crater, there was presented to our eyes a scene, so fierce, so wild, that a mind could hardly conceive the existence of such without seeing it in reality. Here was an amphitheatre-like cavity filled by recent lava, which had overflowed the northern edge and swept down the side of Vesuvius, towards the Atrio del Cavallo. In the centre of the fiery lake rose a cone of about 30 feet in height, built up of fragments of pumice and lava, that on an average of half a minute, were blown (white hot) a hundred feet or so into the air, accompanied by vast columns of acid vapours and gases, and loud rattling ex- plosions, such as are produced by a line of musketry. This was followed by the rattle of the falling pieces on the side of this cone, thereby adding to its size. This cone bears somewhat the same relation to the crater of Vesuvius as the latter mountain does to the pre-historic crater of Monte di Somma. Around it in process of construction and activity were scattered three or four fumeroles, which resemble gigantic sugar-loaves, being covered by incrustations of common salt, sulphide of potash and other sublimates, and from whose summits issued in a rhythmical manner aqueous vapour, and, apparently by the smell, hydrochloric acid. We carefully descended the sides of the crater on to the cooled crust of lava. This in many places was cracked and fissured, and looking down one of these cracks we could see the red-hot liquid trachytic sea, upon which we were really floating, producing a feel- ing of the advantages of life assurance companies. Now with caution we direct our path to one of the fumeroles, on which could be obtained some beau- tiful sublimates. Here, really floating on a lake of liquid fire, standing in vast clouds of almost suffocating vapour, not ten yards from the gigantic chimney of an active volcano belching forth showers of hot stones which it was necessary to evade, hearing loud rolling-like thunder beneath our feet, we recalled to our minds the imaginary visit of Dante to Hades under the guidance of Virgil. The scene fascinated our imagination, and produced a profound feeling of awe of man's feebleness compared with the gigantic efforts of nature, and of his greatness in comparison with his ancestors, who, unable to comprehend the scientific explanation and laws under which such effects were and are produced, were obliged to create deities of but slight superhuman power to account for phenomena which we now understand. The lava as it flows appears to all intents and purposes like liquid asphalte, in the condition it is poured from the caldrons in process of paving our streets, except that it is incandescent. As it flows, it cools on the surface, leaving a crust of sponge-like rock, generally known as scoria;, or it forms for itself an arched channel through which it flows as in a tube. The guide shows some interesting experiments j first he forces his stick into the stream and pinches- off a piece of the hot pasty mass. Into this he squeezes a coin and laps over the edges as if it were dough (i.e. not with his fingers) ; it is allowed to cool and then broken open to show the imbedded coin much oxidised. Tongs with their opposed surfaces engraved are made to pinch a piece of pasty rock and so form a medallion. This .Jast flow from Vesuvius is of exceeding vitreous texture, and con- tains an enormous number of crystals of leucite, which crystallize out before the lava is solid, and thus give to its cooled surface the appearance of dough full of currants. This obsidian-like variety,, I believe, is an uncommon product for this volcano. We well filled our bags with specimens ; in a quarter of an hour we had descended and were at the observatory ; here we took to our horses and carriages, very tired, but well pleased to return to Naples, having enjoyed a delightful day. Of the minerals, and something about them, more anon. CELESTIAL PHOTOMETRY. By John J. Plummer, M.A., F.R.A.S. THE measurement of the distance of the sun front the earth, perhaps the most troublesome pro- blem of practical astronomy, is difficult, not from any inherent intricacy in itself, but merely from the fact that a very wide gap has to be passed, that the know- ledge of tlie length of a comparatively short line is the only available datum from which we must infer that of a very long one. It is precisely similar in the matter of the brilliancy of the sun. There would be no difficulty in comparing its light with a terrestrial standard, but it so greatly transcends any artificial light that we may employ that our ingenuity is sorely tested in effecting a measurement or comparison. On the other hand, the light of the stars falls so much short of that of our usual standards of photometric measurement that a difficulty of like character has again to be encountered. The moon, alone of heavenly bodies, is easily comparable with artificial lights, and may therefore fairly engage our attention first. There is no more convenient artificial light witli which to compare the moon than the sperm candle, made to burn 120 grains of wax per hour, which has- long been in use for photometric purposes. The light HARD WICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS I P. 1 1 of the full moon has been found to be equal to that of a candle at a distance of rather more than 8 feet, or in other words it would require 70 full moons to afford as much light as the sperm candle does at the distance of one foot from the eye. The law by which the amount of lunar light increases or diminishes with her changing phase is a somewhat complicated one, nor can it be said to have yet met with an exact mathematical expression, though more than one close approximation has been made. That which best satisfies the case is attributable to the German mathe- matician Lambert, but it is based on an assumption that the moon, like the planet Jupiter, or the sun itself, is brighter at the centre of the disk than round the periphery. Owing either to the material con- stituents of the moon, or more probably to the con- figuration of the surface, this is not the case, and hence the want of exact correspondence between theory and fact. It will serve, however, to give us a pretty accurate idea of the amount of light derived from the moon at her principal phases. Thus, when horned, i.e., midway between the new moon and the quarters, the total illuminating power is barely one- iwentieth of its brilliancy at full ; at the quarters, when one-half of the illuminated side of the moon is turned towards us it has increased to very nearly one- third ; and when gibbous, or half-way between the quarters and the full moon, fully three-quarters of its maximum light reaches the earth. It is during the two or three days after the first quarter and before the last quarter that the change in the moon's bril- liancy is most rapid, and near the new and full that the variation is the least. If the moon reflected all the light which she receives from the sun there would still be a great disparity between these luminaries, and it would require as many as 45, 193 moons to equal the sun's light, but in fact she is much less generous to us and the dis- parity is very considerably greater. The earlier attempts at a comparison of their respective lustres made by Bouguer and Wollaston by no means con- firm each other, and even the modern measurements of Zollner and Bond are less accordant than we could wish. If we assume that Bond's results are most to be trusted, the sun is no less than 470,980 times brighter than the moon, from which it will be at once inferred that the latter returns to us less than a tithe of what she receives, absorbing fully nine-tenths for her own benefit. Bond has shown, however, that in reflecting the actinic rays she is proportionally more generous, returning to us nearly a seventh. It is this selective power of reflection which causes the differ- ence of colour in the light of the two bodies, the excess of violet and ultra-violet rays which she reflects •converting the yellow tinged solar light into that of the silvery moon. Moreover it seems possible that while sending us an excess of the more refrangible rays, the less refrangible or heat rays are in defect, for it is well known that we derive no heat from the moon whatever or the most infinitesimal quantity. It has been suggested that the upper regions of our own atmosphere would absorb all the heat reflected to us by the moon, still the analogy would point to this not being the only cause of its entire absence at the earth's surface. The brilliancy of the sun follows from the fore- going remarks to be equivalent to 6683 sperm candles at the distance of one foot from the eye, a number more than 1000 greater than what is usually given upon the authority of Wollaston ; but there is some difficulty in reconciling this philosopher's results with one another, and it is a clear indication of the slight extent to which this obscure page of science has been read that his authority should still be so frequently quoted. We will now turn to the lesser lights of the firma- ment and learn how much less bright these are than the moon, which will thus serve as a connecting link between them and the great light-giver of the solar system. Until recent years it had been found im- possible to compare these minute points of light either with one another or with any standard source of light, artificial or natural, and consequently rough estimates were made, throwing the stars into classes or magnitudes according to their relative brightness as judged by the unaided eye. As time went on these rough estimates began to define themselves more and more sharply and to be subdivided, until the system was perfected and stereotyped as it were, so that what required to be done was merely to com- pare instrumentally the photometric intensity of these arbitrarily assumed magnitudes. It is now found (by the aid of Zollner's photometer, which taking advan- tage of the properties of polarized light, has rendered the comparison possible) that a star in one of these classes possesses almost exactly two and a half times the amount of light of a star in the class next below it, and consequently a star of the sixth magnitude, which is the faintest that can be seen by the naked eye, is equivalent to J m part of the light of an average first magnitude star, or 3 g S5 part of the light of Venus at her greatest brilliancy, or 33555153 part of the light of the full moon. There is further reason to believe that the whole of the stars visible upon a fine night, collectively afford as much as -^ part of the light of the full moon, an amount which, I believe, they have seldom had the credit of supplying to the service of man. Mistletoe. — Before your list of the various habitats of the mistletoe is closed, I would record an instance of its growing on the horse-chestnut, which for several years past I have observed in Herefordshire. It is on a young tree in the garden of a labourer's cottage situate at Southfield, about two miles below Bosbury, on the east side of the river Leadon. — Vincent S. Lean. 12 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. OUR COMMON BRITISH FOSSILS, AND WHERE TO FIND THEM. By J. E. Taylor, F.G.S., &c. No. X. A FOURTH division of those well-known stony objects called corals, is that termed Per- forata. These are the familiar twig-like branched corals, whose surface breaks out here and there into flower-like calyces, and whose tips usually terminate in the same sort of objects. The entire structure is distinguished by its light and porous Fig. 6. — Recent Arborescent Coral (Oculina axillaris). character, whence the name of the group. In spite of their apparent fragility, we find them living amid the most violent of seas, for their rapidity of growth enables them to withstand the destructive effects which would otherwise break them up. The division Aporosa did not make its appearance in the primeval seas, but is first observed in those of the secondary period, although its species are most abundant in the present epoch. The Perforata, however, are repre- sented among primary fossils by both Silurian and Devonian genera, such as Protarea and Pleurodictyum. Perhaps the Perforata are better known by their common name of Madrepores. The intervening spaces in the branched or arbores- cent corals, between where one flower-like calyx is seen and another, is called the Ccenenchyma. They are the equivalents of the "inter-nodal spaces" or the distances which separate leaves from one another in the branches of a tree. It is the rapid porous growth of this part which enables such compound corals to stand against a good deal of marine wear- and-tear. It is this part, also, which binds the various corallites together into one colony. In deep- sea corals this Ccenenchyma rarely, and perhaps Fig. 7. — Astra-a 7-oiulosa, a recent West Indian Coral. Fig. 8. — Astrtia favosa, a recent East Indian Coral. JlSSSi^ Fig. 9. — Astraa ananas, a fossil Cora', common in the upper Silurian and Devonian Limestones. never exists, as a means of rendering them compound, but a different method of "compounding" takes place. Oculina (fig. 6) is said by Professor Owen to be the only large coral now found in the north, although our British rocks, especially the Carboni- ferous limestone, are in places almost entirely com- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 13 posed of corals, both reef-building, deep-sea, and shore-loving species. There is often a difficulty in at once saying which of the fossil corals were "reef-builders," and which were not. For it does not follow that because the fossil corals are of a compound character they were therefore engaged in the work of reef- building. Per- haps the safest plan is to trace the existing genera of Fig. 10. — Litliostrotion basaltifortnc, an abundant compound rugose Coral in the Carboniferous limestone. — The lighter parts show the transverse structure, as seen when the coral is cut for sections. Fig. 11. — Vertical section of Litliostrotion Phillipsii, showing structure. reef-builders, as far back in geological time as we can, or at any rate to compare the fossil kinds with their nearest living representatives. Few genera are more distinctively " reef-builders " than the Astnea, whose characteristic star-like arrangement of polypes or corallites (the latter often so close together that they press each other into oval or polygonal shapes), has given to this genus its distinctive name. The wide-spread geographical distribution of the genus Astrrea, and the fact that it is engaged in areas separated by such enormous distances in reef-building, would be an incidental proof to a geologist of its geological antiquity, even if this genus were not found in our upper Silurian and Devonian limestones. Thus Astraa rotulosa (fig. 7) is a living species of this interesting Fig. -Clisiophyllum, a single coral, characteristic of the Carboniferous limestone formation. Fig. 13. — Transverse section of CHsiophyllum, showing (in part) details of structure. genus of corals found abundantly in West Indian seas r where it is both met with in coral-reefs, and masking and adhering to natural rocks. Astrcca favosa (fig. 8),. on the other hand, is peculiar to the East Indian seas, where it is hardly less abundant. And Astma ananas (fig. 9) is a common fossil in the Silurian limestone at the Wren's Nest, Dudley, in the formation of which we can hardly doubt that it and its compeers- 14 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. took a considerable part. For Professor Owen tells us that the Wenlock Edge, in Shropshire, composed of the same formation of rock, is nothing more or less than an ancient coral-reef thirty miles in length ! The Plymouth limestone belongs to the Devonian period, and in it we find this and other genera of reef-building corals, and many of our best pala'ontolo- gists are of the opinion that this limestone is nothing more than a Devonian coral-reef skirting the older regions of Cambrian and Silurian rocks. ( To be continued.) ADDITIONS TO OUR LIST OF ASSISTING NATURALISTS. [Continued from page 270, vol. xv. 1879. Additional names received up to the gt/i u 'time.} Cheshire. Birkenhead. A. E. Lomax, 41 Church Road, Tran- mere. Phanerogamic Botany, Cornwall. Penzance. Ernest D. Marquand, Hea, Madron. Botany (Phanerogams, Mosses, Hepaticce, Lichens, Diatoms), Entomology, Land and Freshwater Mollusca. Essex. Colchester. J. C. Shenstone, 13 High Street. Local Flowering Plants. Gloucestershire. Bristol. W. Barrett Roue, 165 White Ladies Road. Ornithology and Oology. Kent. Hadlow. Fred. W. E. Shrivell. Flowering Plants. New Brompton. Dr. Henry J. Morton, The Lindens, Pres. Rochester Nat. Soc. British Flora, especially Phanerogams, Microscopy, General Natural Hist. Rochester. J. Hepworth, Vice Pres. Rochester Nat. Soc. 2 Union Street. Botany, including Cryp- togams, Mycology, Geology. Lancashire. Manchester. R. E. Holding, 130 Sowerby Street, Moss Side. Skulls, general Osteology, British and Foreign Ornithology and Mammals. Nottinghamshire. Nottingham. E. Wilson, F.G.S., 18 Low Pavement. Geology : especially Carboniferous, Permian, Trias, Rhaetic and Lias. The Yorkshire Coalfield; and information as to deep borings and sinkings for coal, water, &c. Rutland. Uppingham. W. II. Jones. British Flowering Plants. IRELAND. Co. Down, Holy wood. P. Quin Keegan, LL.D. Seaside Fauna. HINTS FOR A MARINE AQUARIUM. By Charles H. Dymond. WHAT can be more exhilarating : what more instructive than a ramble by the sea ? The heavy dull roar of the waves, the whirling flights and discordant cries of the sea-birds, with their white wings glistening in the sunshine, the towering cliffs and jagged tempest-beaten shore. This is the field to contemplate and study the wonders of the mighty deep, and to gain knowledge concerning some of those beings which inhabit it. As we walk along at low water, and see numerous pools left by the tide, teeming not only with life but with luxuriant vegetation which affords good shelter for the small fish which dart away at our approach, the thought comes over us, that we should like to have something of the sort at home, where we could study the habits of Goby, Blenny, and Prawn at leisure. This, of course, is attended with some difficulty, especially if we live far inland, but is quite practical if care and trouble be exercised. It must not be expected that a few fish, or whatever you may find, put into a jar of salt water, will live on without any further attention being paid them, for the oxygen contained in the water would soon become exhausted, and the water become unfit to support animal life. It is my intention, therefore, in this short paper, to give a few practical hints to those who would like to get up a small marine aquarium. The most economical vessel is a bell-shape glass with a knob at the top, and may be purchased at any glass warehouse for a few shillings ; this can be fitted into a wooden stand, and you will at once have it ready to receive anything you may deem proper to put into it. A layer of sand and small stones which may vary in depth from one to three inches, should be placed in the bottom ; sand from a sea beach being most suitable. On this a few shells may be placed with advantage. The next step is the introduction of various sorts of Algrc, for on their growth depends the success of the undertaking, Chlorosperms, or green-seeded Algse, are to my mind the most useful, for they pour out oxygen in very large quantities when in a healthy state, and are acted on by light ; not only do they give out HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. i5 oxygen, but consume the carbonic acid gas which is perhaps the greatest enemy to the aquarium. Sea-weeds, however, must be obtained growing on a stone or shell, for if once removed, they will never attach themselves again. The best sorts are Bryopsis plnmosa, Cladophora arcla, the common sea-grass {Enteromoipha com- pressa), and the green laver {Ulva latissii/ia), and may all be found fringing the beautiful pools at low water. Regarding the inhabitants of the aquarium, great care must be taken only to choose those which will agree well together, or it will become the scene of many battles, and the home of many slain. The great question then arises, What are the animals most hardy and suitable, and how many are we to introduce into a small aquarium ? I will suppose that the various Algae have been placed together with the sea-water in the vessel which is now ready to receive the animals we have collected. The common periwinkle will be found a very pleasing inhabitant, and being exclusively a vegetable eater tends in a great measure to keep the sides clear from that green scurf which constantly accu- mulates and soon conceals the contents of the vessel from distinct observation. I should not recommend, however, the use of more than five or six. One or two limpets {Patella vulgata) will also be of interest, and are useful when a quantity of the common laver {Ulva latissii/ia) is growing on the shell. Perhaps the most beautiful objects in the aquarium are sea-anemones, and these may be easily found, greatly differing in size and colour, on the rocks at low water. Great care, however, is necessary to detach them, for if the base be injured, death often ensues. The most common is the smooth anemone {Actinia mesembryanthemum). There are many others ; but two or three will be enough, and they should be chosen of moderate size. Anemones may be fed every two or three weeks with small pieces of raw beef. Two or three fish, either the smooth blenny {Blen- nius pholis), or the one-spotted goby {Gobius unipnnc- tatus), give a lively appearance to the water. A few prawns are interesting, and are also useful scavengers. If a constant supply of salt water cannot be obtained, a little fresh water must be added from time to time, to make up that which is lost by evaporation. These few hints are only intended for those who keep, or mean to keep, small establishments. Those who intend going in for large aquaria should study " The Aquarium," by J. E. Taylor, F.L.S. A few rules in conclusion : Keep the vessel in a light, airy situation : do not overstock it : be careful to remove any dead animals at once : and try to imitate nature as closely as possible. THE "ROSE OF JERICHO "-ANASTATIC! HIEROCHUNTICA. A MONG the seventeen hundred species comprised ■iV in the important natural order Crucifene, one of the most remarkable is the " Rose of Jericho," of which the lengthy and by no means euphonious botanical name is given above. This plant does not present any marked deviation from the prevailing morphological characters of the order, and, therefore, is in this respect less interesting than the tetra- cotyledonous Schizopetalon, Pringlea antiscorbutica (the Kerguelen Island cabbage), and others ; but it is the peculiar hygrometric properties of the stem and branches that have rendered it famous. The species under consideration is the only one of the genus, and forms, according to some authorities, the type of a distinct tribe, Anastaticese ; it is a native of the dry sandy tracts of land that extend from Syria to Algeria,, being especially abundant in the neighbourhood of Suez and Jericho. To the latter place it owes its specific title, for hierochuntica (or hierochuntina) is an adjectival form of the old name of that city ; how the popular term Rose came to be applied to it is not very clear, for there is not the remotest resemblance to the queen of flowers, unless the dried-up ball may be considered suggestive of its outline. The plant has recently been correctly and graphically described by the veteran botanist, Mr. J. Smith, ex- curator of the Royal Gardens, Kew, in his excellent little work entitled " A History of Bible Plants." * After detailing certain passages of the Scriptures which are supposed to refer to the Rose of Jericho, he proceeds as follows : — "It is an annual, having a tap-root from which numerous branches are produced, forming a circular disc about a foot in diameter, at first lying nearly flat on the ground. It has small leaves, and small white flowers at their axis. When the seeds are perfected, the stems become dry, hardened, and incurved, their points meeting and forming a skeleton hollow ball, which in time (by the power of the wind) loses hold of the ground, and, being blown about, rolls and turns like a wheel." This description conveys a very good idea of the plant, and we need only add that the fruit is a small roundish silicula with two woody valves, each of which terminates at its apex in an acute point. In a botanical work of considerable note, these siliculte have been strangely confounded with the flowers. During the dry season these plant-balls are scattered far and wide by the winds, and on the return of the rains the branches spread out, the diminutive silicube burst and release the seeds which speedily germinate in the damp, warm soil. This alternative inclosing and expanding of the branches continues for many years, thus forming a most admirable and astonishing means of effectively dispersing the seeds. Concerning the strange manner in which these plants are scattered, * Published by Mr. David Bogue. i6 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. the traveller, Dr. Thompson, has written as follows : *' When ripe and dry in autumn, the branches become rigid and light as a feather, the parent stem breaks •off at the ground, and the wind carries these vege- table globes whithersoever it pleaseth. At the proper season thousands of them come scudding ■over the plain, rolling, leaping, and bounding, to the dismay both of the horse and his rider. Once in the plain north of Hamath my horse became quite unmanageable among them." Nearly forty years ago an individual whose scientific knowledge was extremely limited, caused consider- able amusement by writing a pamphlet containing a most extraordinary and absurd account of this plant. He became, it appears, possessed of a dried specimen to which innumerable imaginary and miracu- lous qualities were assigned, and it was stated to have been exhibited before the chief botanists of the day, all of whom declared it to be a veritable vegetable monstrosity that was quite new to them. The absurdity of these statements was most amusingly •exposed by one of the horticultural papers, doubt- lessly much to the astonishment of the author, who found that his wonderful plant had been known for hundreds of years. Dry specimens are now frequently sold in London as curiosities, and I recently saw numbers of them on some stalls in the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, where they are described by the vendors (who appear to emulate the writer already mentioned) as possessing several purely imaginary qualities, one being that they produce enormous brilliantly-coloured flowers after being immersed in water for twenty-four hours. I have examined many of these with the object of obtaining some seeds, but they must be very old, for the little capsules are entirely empty. A few months ago, however, I was ^fortunate enough to procure some seeds from which living plants were raised that, as far as I have been able to ascertain, are the only ones in the country. A friend returning from India, ■vid Suez, purchased several specimens at the latter place, and after his arrival in England presented them to me. These botanical treasures were at once placed in water, and great was my pleasure to ob- serve the tiny siliculre open and reveal the yellowish minute seeds. After being in water a few days the seeds commenced to germinate, and the branches were soon covered with small bright green coty- ledons. The diminutive plants were carefully separated from the parent stem and placed in pans of sandy soil in a glass-house where a temperature of 6o° Fahrenheit was maintained. Here they grew rapidly and to afford them mere space for develop- ment were ultimately placed singly in small pots. In June, the small white flowers were produced and a succession of flowers has continued until the present time (October), but although apparently vigorous and healthy, I fear they will not mature any seeds. Lewis Castle. MICROSCOPY. Live-Box and Compressorium. — I have made an apparatus for use with the microscope — a kind of live-box and compressorium combined — which I find to answer its purpose extremely well, and as it is very simple and can be easily made, perhaps it might be useful to some of your readers. I enclose a plan and sectional elevation of the same drawn to two- thirds scale, and the following is a general description : Fig. 14.— Plan and section elevations of combined Iis-e-box and compressorium. A is a piece of brass plate 3x1 with a hole in the centre to receive the piece b, which revolves in it and is kept in its place by a thin nut and washer, as shown, b is of one piece, and carries on the top a circle of glass, around which a groove is turned to receive the superfluous water, and in its base are screwed three pieces of steel wire, c carries another circle of glass ; it has three holes drilled to fit the pieces of wire, sliding freely upon them, and pre- venting it from turning. The glass surfaces are kept asunder by three coil springs placed on the wires underneath the piece c, and are brought into con- tact with each other by screwing the piece d into b, which is screwed with a fine thread to fit it. By this means, the liveliest object can be compressed without damage by holding the milled edge of b, while d is gently screwed down till the object is secured between the two glass circles. The whole can then be revolved during examination. The drawings are two-thirds full size. — Thos. Richardson. Microscopical Society of Liverpool. — The ninth ordinary meeting of the eleventh session of this society was held at the Royal Institution, on Friday evening the 5th ult. ; Rev. W. H. Dallinger, President, in the chair. The paper of the evening was read by Frank T. Paul, Esq. F.R.C.S., entitled " The HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 17 Structure and Development of the Teeth." The paper formed a concise resume of the present state of our knowledge of the structure and development of the teeth. It was freely illustrated by microscopic specimens and diagrams ; many of them refer to the earliest condition of the teeth. Mr. Paul called attention to the value of studying the embryonic condition of the tissue, and showed the developmental relations between hair, feathers, horns, hoofs and teeth. He then traced up the growth of the necessary and permanent teeth from the first appearance of the enamel germ of the sixth week to the mature state, a discussion of the structure of which occupied the concluding portion of the paper. The President accorded the thanks of the Society to Mr. Paul for his most instructive and well-illustrated paper. A discussion followed in which the President, Rev. W. Banister, G. F. Chantrell, Esq., Dr. Nevins, and others took part. The meeting concluded with the usual conversazione and microscopical exhibition. Polariscopes. — It has struck me that some of our economical microscopists, who have wished for a polariscope, but have been unable to obtain one on account of the expense, may have invented a make- shift one for that purpose, and as I am wishing very much for one, I should be glad to know if anybody has ever made such an one, and if so, how he made it, worked it, and kept it? — Economy. The Quekett Microscopical Club. — We have received No. 41 of the " Journal " of this popular and ever-green society. It contains the following papers : — " On a Method of Resolving Diatom Tests," by Adolf Schulze ; "On the Anatomy of Actinia mesembryanthemitm" by F. A. Bedwell ; " On the Reproductive System of some of the Acarina," by A. D. Michael; "On Staining Sections of Animal Tissues," by J. W. Groves ; " On some Improvements in Microscopical Turn-tables," by C. Spencer Rolfe, and lastly (but not leastly, for the discourse, if short, is most pithy and suggestive), we have the address of the President of the Club, Professor Huxley. ZOOLOGY. DAPHNIA VETULA. — Whilst examining one of these water-fleas, I noticed a small one inclosed in the body of the larger, which was of course living {the larger one). The smaller one had no apparent motion of life to me. I transferred it to filtered water to clean the intestine as recommended by Davies, and examined it before putting it to soak in dilute alcohol and glycerine, but did not see the small one. Do water-fleas bring forth their young alive, as in the plates I have seen of them I can only see what appear to be eggs, in the body where I saw the young one ? — J. M. Phosphorescence of Earth-Worms. — Is it generally known that the earth-worm (Lumbricus terrestris) is sometimes highly phosphorescent ? Pro- fessor Paley does not mention this in his able and exhaustive article. I disturbed one the other night ; it became very luminous and left a trail of light behind it as it passed along the ground. — F. W. E. Shrivett. Mistaken Instinct.— In the April part of Science-Gossip there is a short note on mistaken instinct. The following may perhaps prove interest- ing to some readers. In July last, one fine afternoon, as we were watching my bees carrying in pollen, one of them separating from the others alighted on some pretty blue artificial flowers in the bonnet of a lady who was looking at them ; tried each flower carefully for honey, and, of course, finding none, flew away, no doubt much disgusted. The bee must have been attracted by form and colour ; the flowers were not at all natural, but gaudy red anthers and blue stamens. — Fred. W. E. Shrivell. Mistakes made by Instinct. — In the July number of Science-Gossip, I communicated the case of an egg of Anthocharis Cardamines being laid on the caducous sepal, instead of the pedicel, of the flower of the food plant by the insect in captivity. I subsequently met with several instances of the same thing occurring under natural conditions. Errors in instinct through the laying, or [mis-laying, of their eggs by insects at wrong times or in wrong places were well known to the older entomologists, as the following interesting passage from Degeer abundantly proves. I quote from the German translation of Gotze (Ab- handlungen zur Geschichte, &c, vol. ii. part 2, page 241, plate 35, figs. 12 and 13). He has been describing a saw-fly which spins a double cocoon. Inside one of these double cocoons, with its head sticking out of its own coarctate pupa-case, he found a dead dipterous parasite of the saw-fly; and he ascribes its death to a mistake of the parent fly in laying her egg on the false caterpillar of the saw-fly when the latter was too advanced in its growth. "Its fate," he says, "was a consequence of the mother's oversight, which seems to have laid her egg too late on the false caterpillar, so that the larva proceeding from it could not attain to its full size before the saw- fly caterpillar must prepare for its transformation, and consequently, unwittingly let itself be shut up in an everlasting prison. It had indeed gone on to devour the caterpillar. It had changed to a nymph within the red cocoon; but when it became a fly it could not make its way through the double cocoon of the saw-fly, and must consequently perish. Thus the mother fly had erred in laying her egg, a thing that is not usual among insects, which on every occasion, and especially in the propagation of their species, display always so much diligence and foresight." To this, however, the translator adds in a note : "Never- theless, examples and instances occur in more than iS HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. one species, that insects, whether in respect of time or place, are frequently wont to err in oviposition. I could wish that people would collect and compare more examples of the like kind. Perhaps we might thereby discover many a secret in the economy of insects that still remains hidden from us." — J. A. Osborne, M.D., Milford t Letterkenny. The Great Bustard in Jersey. — It may interest some of your readers to know that two fine specimens of the Great Bustard were shot in this island (Jersey) on the 8th of December. — J. Sine!. Bulwer's Petrel (Tfaalassidroma Bulwerit). — A specimen of this very rare bird was recently dis- covered about two miles from Ipswich, where it was | intended to do duty as a "crow" in the used-up attempt to " scarecrow " other birds. The specimen has been secured for the Ipswich Museum. — J. E. Taylor. The " Painted Lady" in Hawaii. — The Rev. T. Blackburn mentioned, in the " Entomologists' Monthly Magazine " for December, the occurrence of the "Painted Lady" (Vanessa Cardui) in consider- able abundance in various parts of the Hawaiian Archipelago last summer. BOTANY. Watson's Province No. IV. — This botanical province comprises Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire, Huntingdonshire, and Northampton- shire. As little is known about the distribution of mosses in this province, and as information is wanted for topographical purposes, I shall be very pleased to name any mosses sent to me from this province, the mosses to be fair specimens, labelled with full particulars as to habitat, date, and altitude in all possible cases. Any doubtful specimens will be submitted to the highest authorities.— JVm. West, 15 I lor ton Lane, Bradford. "Journal of Botany."— We understand that Mr. James Britten, F.L.S., succeeds Dr. Trimen in the editorship of this important and well-known journal. Albino Foliage. — Professor Church has recently read another paper before the Chemical Society of London, in which he has shown that white foliage does not possess the power, even in sunshine, of decomposing carbonic acid in the air. Experiments were made with leaves of maple, holly, ivy, and alocasia. KalmiA latifolia (see query p. 282, col. 2), is certainly a poisonous plant. In Rees's Cyclopaedia (1819) it is stated that "The value of the first sort, (latifolia) is much lessened by its noxious properties." Don's "Dictionary of Dichlamydeous Plants," 1S34, has, " This genus is considered poisonous and is often fatal to cattle." Lindley, in his "Vegetable Kingdom," ( J S53) p. 454, quotes from Burnett: "The flowers exude a sweet honey-like juice, which is said when swallowed to bring on intoxication of a phrenitic kind, which is not only formidable in its symptoms but very lengthened in its duration." In vol. ii. of Supplement to the Penny Cyclopaedia (1S51) is- information to the same effect. On p. 517 of Mrs. Hooker's translation of Le Maout and Decaisne's. " General System of Botany" (1S73) I read, "The genera Rhododendron, Sedum, Kalmia and Azalea are narcotic ; the honey extracted from their flower is extremely poisonous." In Miss Edgeworth's " To- morrow" (Tales and Novels, 1832, vol. v. p. 341), a story for those who are fond of "sweet procrastina- tion," the hero says, " I observed in the crop of one of the pheasants some bright green leaves and some buds, which I suspected to be the leaves and buds of the Kalmia latifolia, a poisonous shrub," &c. &c. Tapton Elms, Sheffield. Bernard Hobson. GEOLOGY. The Fish Remains found in the Cannel Coal in the Middle Coal-measures of the West Riding of Yorkshire. — Mr. James W. Davis, F.G.S., has recently read a paper on this subject before the Geological Society. The remains- described by the author were from a bed of cannel coal about 400 feet above the base of the middle coal-measures, and were chiefly obtained from this, lied at the Tingley Colliery. At Tingley the fish remains were stated to occur in greatest abundance between the cannel coal and the " hubb ; " but they are also found in both those portions of the deposit. Of known species Mr. Davis has identified : — - Ccelacanthus lef turns, Ctenodus elegans, Megalichthys Hibberti, Rhizodopsis (sp.), Faltzoniscus (sp.), Gyrx- canthus formosns, Ctcnacanthiis horridus, Diplodus gibbosits, Ctenoptychius pectinatus, Jdelodus simplex, teeth of Cladodus and Petalodus, scales of Rhizodus, ribs and bones of Ctenodus, Pleuracanthus licvissimus, and six other species, and the following which are described as new forms : — (1) Compsacanthus triangularis, (2) C. major, and (3) Ostracacanthus dilatatus, the type of a new genus resembling Byssa- canthus (Agass.). The teeth of Ccelacanthus were said to be small and sharply pointed ; they have not been found attached to the jaw, but in certain specimens of the latter the alveolar spaces are well shown, extending in a single row along the rami. The air-bladder of this genus is also said to be preserved, and to present some resemblance to the bony air-bladders of Siluroid fish inhabiting the fresh waters of Northern India; and in general the author dwelt at considerable length upon the possible relationships existing between the fishes whose remains he described and the Teleostean Siluroids and Ostracean. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 19 The Probable Temperature of the Primor- dial Ocean of our Globe. — At a recent meeting of the Geological Society a paper on this subject was read by Robert Mallet, F.R.S., in which he stated that according to the latest hypotheses as to the quantity of water on the globe, its pressure, if evenly distributed, would be equal to a barometric pressure of 204*74 atmospheres. Accordingly water, when first it began to condense on the surface of the globe would condense at a much higher temperature than the present boiling-point, under ordinary cir- cumstances. The first drops of water formed on the cooling surface of the globe may not impossibly have been at the temperature of molten iron. As the water was precipitated, condensation of the remain- ing vapour took place at a lower temperature. The primordial atmosphere would be more oblate and less penetrable by solar heat than the present, and the difference of temperature between polar and ■equatorial regions would be greater ; so that, in the later geological times, ice may have formed in the one, while the other was too hot for animal or vegetable life. Thus, formerly the ocean would be a more powerful disintegrant and solvent of rocks, mineral changes would be more rapid, and meteoric agencies would produce greater effects in a given time. Diatoms in London Clay.— Mr. W. H. Shrub- sole has announced his opinion that he has found several distinct species of Antidiscus in the London clay formation. The "Patches" in Granite.— Mr. J. A. Phillips has read a very important paper before the Geological Society on this subject, in which he states that patches resembling fragments of other rocks frequently occur in granite, sometimes angular, sometimes rounded, sometimes with clearly defined boundaries, sometimes melting away into the sur- rounding mass, generally finer in grain than the latter. After a sketch of the literature of the subject, the author described the results of chemical and microscopic investigations of these patches in the granites of Cornwall, Shap Fell, Aberdeen, Peter- head, Fort William and North-eastern Ireland. There are two classes of inclusions : (1) the result of the abnormal aggregation of the minerals constituting the granite itself, containing generally more plagio- clastic felspar, mica, or hornblende than it, with some other distinctions : most probably concretions formed contemporaneously with the solidification of the mass ; (2) fragments of included schistose or slaty rock, often not very highly altered, caught up from the rock-masses through which the granite has forced its way. The Geology of Natal, &c — A communica- tion on this subject has just been made by the Rev. H. Griffiths to the Geological Society of London, in which the writer states that shales and sandstones are the prevalent rocks from the coast for about twenty- four miles inland. Here is a protrusion of granite ; beyond the sandstones come ferruginous shales, with scattered boulders of trap on the surface. The northern third of Natal is white sandstone, formed into hills and ridges by denudation, with a long trap- capped plateau near Ilelpmakaar. Coal-seams occur in the sandstones. There are frequent vertical pipes in these sandstones which, the author thinks, mark the site of trunks of trees, round which the sand-beds had accumulated. Rorke's House and Isandhlwana are near the above plateau. Near the former is an extinct mud volcano. A remarkable " vitreous shale " is found near the Buffalo ; isolated pinnacles of it occur at the spot where the few survivors of the fight crossed that river. A range of mountains, with mural escarpments, remnants of an ancient plateau, rising to a height of some 2000 feet above another plateau which is 5000 to 6000 feet above the sea, extends for about 500 miles from the north of Natal to near Cradock in the Cape Colony ; they are sandstone horizontally stratified, capped by trap. Some other geological features are described. The Transvaal consists of undulating hills of soft limestone, a sand- stone range, and a country rich in metals, — iron-ore, cobalt, nickel, copper and gold occur, as well as plumbago. A New Geological Section. — We strongly recommend all our readers, geological science teachers, &c, to procure Mr. J. B. Jordan's newly issued " Geological Section," showing the super- position and approximate maximum thickness of sediment and strata in the British Islands." (London : E. Stanford & Co.) It is the best of the kind yet issued. The Geology of Leighton Buzzard.— We have received a copy of some published lectures on the above subject by Edward W. Lewis, F.R.G.S., published by A. C. Muddiman (Leighton Buzzard). In these lectures, which were delivered, we believe, to working men, the lecturer has endeavoured, and with much success, to convey the general truths with as many local illustrations of them as come to his hand. We congratulate Mr. Lewis on his success, and heartily wish he had a representative in every geologically representative district in Great Britain. Fossil Insects.— Few papers, among the many which reach us, have impressed us with evidence of harder or more zealous scientific work than those which Mr. H. Goss, F.L.S., has contributed to the Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. We have just received part ii., on " The Insect Fauna of the Secondary or Mesozoic Period." It is a most exhaustive work, calculated to save a lifetime to the man who follows Mr. Goss in this hard-worked field 20 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. of research. To Mr. Goss belongs more credit than to any one we know who has devoted himself specially to fossil entomology. Cement for Fossils. — I have some very fragile fossil remains of which I desire to make sections. Will some reader kindly inform me if there be any transparent cement with which I can saturate them, fluid when hut, but perfectly hard when cold. Neither gelatine nor plaster of Paris, &c, will do, since the fossils must be ground down with water, and the plaster is too opaque. — P. F. L. Siphonias. — There is a group of sponges known as Siphonias. Will some one inform me if they are confined to the Greensand, or if any members of the group are found in the upper or lower chalk ? — K. F. L. NOTES AND QUERIES. A Curious Calculation about Sparrows and Sparrowhawks. — In Science-Gossip for November, 1879, I see ^ r - Dealy has been "inter- esting our readers with a curious calculation " about sparrows and sparrowhawks. I was much interested in his "curious calculation," as a curious example of how easily some people can prove that to be truth which they wish to be true. I will take for granted as true the groundwork of his calculation, and en- deavour to lessen the contrast he has drawn between the sparrow and the sparrowhawk to the discredit of the former. Indeed, at the outset, I will presume the whole of his " curious calculations " to be as correct as a naturalist's figures ought to be. What then ? Is Mr. Dealy one of those men who think that man and his wants are the only things in creation worth a moment's thought or consideration ? One pair of sparrowhawks in 20 square miles ; 3 sparrows per day to each bird, makes 2190 per year ; 100 grains of wheat to each sparrow, makes 219,000 as the number of grains of wheat which the sparrow would consume, or rather which the sparrowhawks would save in one year in 20 square miles. And as there are 12,800 acres in 20 square miles, of which we may suppose one-fifth to be under cultivation (I do not know if this is exact, but it is sufficiently so for my present purpose), leaves 2563 acres of cultivated land. This divided into 219,000 gives the tremendous result of 85 grains of wheat to be saved per acre of culti- vated land by cultivating the acquaintance of sparrow- hawks ! Does Mr. Dealy still begrudge the sparrow his food ? But I find on looking at the preceding part of Mr. Dealy's essay, that our calculation is much too large. I have been presuming, or rather Mr. Dealy has for me, that all the food of the sparrow- hawk consists of sparrows, whereas the four birds he himself opened, show that one-fourth only can be reckoned as such. What then is the amount of damage to be saved to the people of the British Isles by the destruction of 185^ tons of sparrows yearly ? Just i6£ loads. Value at retail price of 2d. per lb. = nearly^oo ; or about I pipe of tobacco for each of the smoking population in 15 years! "Farmers, agriculturists, cannot you see ?" Now look at the other side of the question. Would 1 bird in 40 eaten by the sparrow- hawk, as taken from the farm-yard or game-preserve be too much for his thieving propensities "' And would 6d. each be too much at which to value the bird ? If not, then over ,£8000 would be the price to be paid for a saving of nearly .£400. At least one-half the food of the sparrowhawk seems to be insect-eating birds. So I shall be much within the mark if I say that one- half the food consumed by the birds which form the food of sparrowhawks is insects. And I think I shall be very much within the mark if I say that each bird consumes 4 times its own weight of food in one year (without reckoning the insects taken to feed their young, for which purpose sparrows, according to some naturalists, catch a great number). We have thus 13,304,250 birds, each consuming 8 oz. of food (reckoning 2 oz. to a bird with Mr. Dealy), of which 40Z. will be insects, making 3,326,062 lbs. of insects. Now 6 times its own weight of food would be a very small amount for insects to destroy in one year. We thus get 19,956,372 lbs. of food destroyed yearly by insects which would be eaten by birds which form the food of sparrowhawks. 19,956,372 lbs. at id. per lb. (I have credited the sparrows with food]at 2d. per lb.) gives over £ 83,000. This added to the £8000 worth of poultry and game, makes ,£91,000 at a low estimate, as the price which must be paid to prevent damage which at a high estimate cannot be more than ,£400; and which damage, if done, is I believe immensely compensated for by the number of insects destroyed. Surely Mr. Dealy is joking when he would have us protect the sparrowhawk on the score of economy ! I think such a style of writing cannot be too highly condemned, for it leads the ignorant into error, while the more educated but unscientific portion of the people are apt to class with it correct and carefully prepared statistics.' — S. Woolley. Daucus Carota. — In December number, p. 27S, right-hand column, line four, for the words "of the side of" read " similar to." Work on Falconry. — What is the latest and the best work on Falconry ? Can any ,of your readers tell me where to get the hood, jesses, and complete furniture of a falcon ? If not, can they tell me the best manner to fasten the jesses on ? — P. M. K. Zoological Nomenclature. — Is there any work giving the origin and the meaning of the specific and generic nomenclature in zoology, but especially in ornithology? If 1 not, I should think such a work would be extremely interesting. — P. M. K. Frozen-over Fish-ponds. — The lines quoted by Mr. Lloyd in his article last month on the above subject are from the eighth canto of the first epistle of Pope's "Essay on Man." — IVm. West, 15 Horton Lane, Bradford. Unripened Figs. — "Penny Cyclopaedia" says, " The fig-tree is very apt to throw off its fruit before it ripens, and various methods have been suggested to prevent this. In the Levant to insure a crop, a process termed caprification is resorted to, which consists in placing among the cultivated figs branches of the wild figs, in which a kind of Cynips abounds. The insect issuing from the wild fruit enters the others, brushing about the pollen in the inside, and so fertilising the fruit. Or those that drop prematurely and are chiefly filled with male flowers are preserved and introduced among the green growing figs with a view to their pollen being carried by insects to the flowers where it is wanted. Nothing is done in England except ringing the shoots." — Bernard ITobson, Sheffield. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 21 Fleas in Rabbit. — Some time ago I shot a three parts grown rabbit, the upper part of the head and ears of which were so thickly coated with fleas, that the fur on the former and skin on the latter were completely hidden. The fleas did not run up to these parts after the animal was dead (as might be con- jectured), for I went up to it while still alive and kicking, and there were the fleas — all alive, but motionless — forming a shining beady covering on the head and ears. A more disgusting sight I have seldom witnessed. How is it to be accounted for ? — A. Malan. Mortality of Shrewmice. — Will some learned correspondent inform me why it is that shrewmice are so frequently found dead, but unmangled, in garden paths, carriage-drives, &c, especially after a heavy rain ? From what cause do they die, and why is it that cats, owls, and other nocturnal depredators do not eat them when in such conspicuous situations ? — A Malan. Flight of Woodcocks. — Is it not a curious fact that woodcocks, when leaving the covers at dusk, wide-awake and hungry, as a rule fly slowly, in a more or less lazy, careless "owly " manner ; whereas, at dawn, when returning from the meadows, gorged and sleepy, their flight is most hurried, straight, and rapid — the birds then flying low, just clearing the hedge-rows, and showing every sign of being cautious and eager to avoid danger ? This I have often noticed.— A. Malan. The Largest Tree in the World. — There is at present on exhibition in New York a section of an immense tree which has been brought from California. The New York Herald says: — "This wonderful specimen of nature's handiwork was discovered in 1874. It was growing in a grove near Tule river, Prulare county, California, about seventy-five miles from Visalia. Its top had been broken off, probably at some remote period, and when discovered it was still 240ft. high. The body of the tree where it was broken was 12ft. in diameter, and had two limbs, measuring respectively 9ft. and 10ft. in diameter. The trunk measured below I lift. This ancient monarch of the forest is called ' Old Moses,' after a mountain near which it stood. It is supposed to be 4840 years old, and it is the largest tree that has ever been dis- covered. The section on exhibition is 75ft. in cir- cumference and 25ft. across. It is capable of holding 150 people in its interior. The interior, as it is now fitted up, is arranged like a drawing-room. A carpet has been laid down ; there are a piano, sofa, tables, and chairs, with scenes from California hung around, and people move about quite freely." Abundance of Vanessa Cardui in 1879. — We may hope one result of this will be some more light on what is now obscure in the life-history of the species. The summer emergence was, in Kent, certainly heralded by a spring appearance of hybernated specimens ; the more remarkable, considering the severity of the winter. — J. P. S. C. Insect Swarms.— The northern part of Wales has been visited this year, not only by an unusual swarm of V. cardui and P. gamma, but also of the pretty little swift Hepialus hectus. In the woods along the coast line from Rhyl to Bangor this swarming was something miraculous, more especially about the Conway valleys. I noticed Hectus in the Park Lake Wood (Llanrwst), not in thousands, but in millions. At rest on the rocks, on blades of grass, flying about two or three feet from the ground, " found drowned " in the ditches, a dozen males paying their attentions to one female, some flying swiftly, others hovering about one spot, in quest perhaps of lodging for the night. I sat upon a stone watching them for nearly an hour (at dusk), when suddenly // hectus became to the vision non est. I was delighted with my visitors and there and then swore eternal friendship. Butter- flies, especially T. rubi, members of the family Satyrus, P. brassica and P. raj>, r a leaf, rd£is, arrangement), and before going farther into the subject it will be neces- sary to state that the point of the stem from which the leaf proceeds is called a node, the leaf being developed as a cellular process connected with the vascular bundles of the axis. The space intervening between any two nodes is termed an internode. Now there are three principal modes of leaf arrangement : 1. That in which the leaves are placed at different levels alternately round the axis. This is alternate phyllotaxis. 2. That in which the leaves are placed in pairs, at the same level, and opposed to each other. This is opposite phyllotaxis. 3. That in which the leaves come off at the same point in the axis, three or more arising from the cir- cumference of the same circle, and assuming a whorled or verticillate arrangement. This is verticillate phyllo- taxis. The alternate leaf arrangement is the one that requires most consideration, it being, as it were, the foundation of the whole system, and from which the others diverge more or less. It is likewise one of the most ordinary forms, being the normal arrangement in Monocotyledons, and being extremely common amongst Dicotyledons. The leaves in this case are disposed round the axis, more or less, in a spiral c 2 HARDWJCKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. manner, the spiral being a continuous one. As example is better than precept, and as in botany practical experience from actual specimens is all im- portant, it will be well to illustrate the subject by the study of the leaf plan of some shrub or tree. Let us take the oak (Qucrcus Robur) as an example. (Should this not be readily obtainable, cherry, poplar, or apple will be equally serviceable.) On careful examina- above it, it will be necessary to pass five leaves. And to effect this it will be found that two lines round the stem are made, in order to complete the cycle, as the interval between the leaf and the one immediately above it is termed. Of course it will be noticed that the leaf which terminates one angle also commences the next, and so on. This particular phyllotaxis of the oak, pear, &c, is called the pentastichous [trine, Fig. 15. — Phyllotaxial arrangement of lcuf-buds of Wayfaring Tree. m Fig. 16. — Phyllotaxial arrangement of leaf-buds of Horse- Chestnut. n Fig. 17. — Phyllotaxial arrangement of leaf-buds of Ash. tion it will be found that, starting from any leaf, to arrive at the leaf which is precisely over it, it will be necessary to pass through five leaves in immediate succession to the one chosen at the starting-point. Thus the sixth leaf is exactly over the first. This arrangement is found to be universal with all the leaves. No matter which leaf is selected as the starting-point, before arriving at the one vertically five, arixos, row) arrangement. Now it has been found easy to represent this and other plans of alternate phyllotaxis in the form of fractions, the numerator representing the number of turns round the axis, and the denominator the number of leaves in the cycle. Hence, as in the oak there are two turns and five leaves, the fraction § will represent mathematically the phyllotaxis of that tree. It may HA RDWICKE'S SCIENCE- G OSS I P. 29 be said generally, that when we can count the number of rows (vertical) of leaves as placed on the axis, we have at once the den-ominator of the fraction ; for the number of rows is identical with the number of leaves in the cycle. One of the simplest arrangements is the distichous (in two rows). This is found to be the normal plan in all grasses, in the elm (Ulmus campestris) , linden (Tilia), &c. The third leaf is immediately over the the angular divergence of the leaves may be expressed in degrees. Thus in the pentastichous, or | arrange- ment, each leaf is separated from its predecessor and successor by two-fifths of the circumference of a circle, i.e. two-fifths of 360 , or 144 . Thus in this case the angular divergence is 144 degrees. In the distichous plan the angular divergence is one-half a circle, or 180 degrees. The tetrastichous phyllotaxis has the fifth leaf immediately over the first, and examples of Fig. 18. — Opposite phyllotaxis ot Lamiutn album. first, and there is one turn round the stem. The leaves being arranged in two rows, one on each side of the axis, it is obvious that on one side there will be the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, &c, and on the other, the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, &c. The fraction suitable to this case will be \ — one turn and two leaves in the cycle. Speaking mathematically, a circle contains 360 , and by taking the number of degrees, represented by the fraction, which indicates the phyllotaxis in question, the tristichous arrangement are seen in the elder and in sedges. The following fractions represent common forms of phyllotaxis : \, \, j, \, ^, 2 8 T , Jf. It may be noticed that the numerator of each fraction is the denominator of the next but one preceding, and that, after the first two of the series, each numerator is the sum of the two preceding numerators, and similarly with the denominators. It will now be necessary to say something concerning HARDIFICRE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. the subject of what we called " secondary spirals." It is obvious that difficulties are met with in deter- mining the phyllotaxis of fir-cones, and in other cases where, by the shortening of the internodes and consequent approximation of the nodes, the leaves or scales are so closely situated that at first sight it seems hopeless to unravel the mode in which these leaves or scales are arranged. But this is accom- plished by having recourse to the system of secondary spirals. If a cone be attentively examined it will be seen that, starting from any scale at the base, spirals wind round the cone to the right and left from the starting-point. Now it is obvious that the spirals running from right to left embrace between them all the scales of the cone. And the same applies to the spirals running from left to right. The least reflection will prove that this is the case. Hence, if we count the number of spirals running (say) from left to right, we know that in every one of these spirals the number of scales embraced in that spiral will be represented by the fraction having I for its numerator and the number of spirals for its denominator. For example, let the cone of the white pine (Finns Strobus) be taken. In this cone we find eight secondary spirals passing from left to right and five from right to left. Thus we see that in each spiral running from left to right there is contained one-eighth of the total number of scales, and in each spiral running from right to left there is contained one-fifth of the total number of scales. Hence it becomes possible to number every scale of the cone ; for starting from the lowest scale, which we call I, the next scale on the spiral running from left to right will be numbered 9, the next 17, and so on, the common difference being eight. In the same manner, the spiral originating in scale 1, but running from right to left, will have its second scale numbered 6, its third numbered II, and so on, the common difference being five. Thus we have all the materials for determining the generating spiral as it is termed, or that spiral which passes through every scale before arriving at the one vertically above the one from which we started, and this is effected by numbering all the scales. It will, of course, be observed that it is only the generating spiral which passes through the numbers o, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c, consecutively, whereas the secondary spirals pass through the numbers already given. In the white pine, then, the 14th scale is immediately over the first, and there are five turns round the axis. Hence the arrangement is represented by the fraction T 5 j, which, by the way, is a " curviserial " arrangement, as will be explained shortly. It affords excellent practice to the student of phyllotaxis to unravel the arrangement of fir-cones, and, more than anything else, tends to give definite ideas on the subject of phyllotaxis. The ^ plan is not uncommon. It is found in the house-leek and wormwood. Although usually uniform in the same species, still this is not always the case. For in some plants there may be one arrangement at the base and another at the summit. But in most cases this is observed only in the young state of the plant, and disappears with growth. Some species of the genus Sedum furnish examples. Should the generating spiral follow a similar course in both stem and branches, the arrangement is homodro?nous, but if this is not the case then it is called hetero- dromous (o/u-os, like, 'irtpos, different, 8p6/j.os, course). Other series are 5 8 r (Pinus sylvestris, the Scotch fir,) other species of Pinus $, |^, &c. The expression "curviserial arrangement" was used above. By this it is meant that no leaf is exactly over the leaf from which we start in situation, but it is placed a little to the right or left of that position. For if the fraction f 5 be calculated in degrees, it will be found that the result is not a whole number, but that some odd minutes are present. Thus we see that in this case the circle is not equally divided by the scales, and hence it is impossible for them to be situated in vertical rows. The fact of the leaves being thus arranged in an infinite curve suggested to Bravais the term curvise?-ial, which is used in contradistinction to the rectiserial arrangement. In this the fractions give whole numbers, and the circle is divided into cases of equality ; thus in this case the leaves or scales are actually arranged in perfectly vertical rows in the axis, and the vertical position of the leaves forming the commencement and termination of the cycle is maintained. Before dismissing the subject of alternate phyllotaxis it is well to notice that in Dicotyledons the first leaves (cotyledon) have an opposite arrangement, and it is by the lengthening of the axis that this becomes alternate. In Monocotyledons, as already mentioned, alternate phyllotaxis is of necessity the rule. Opposite phyllotaxis is not quite so commonly met with as alternate. In it two leaves are given off at a node on opposite sides of the axis, and very frequently the successive pairs of leaves are arranged at right angles to each other. When this occurs the arrange- ment is said to be decussate. In some cases, however, the leaves do not exactly cut one another at right angles, but deviate slightly from this decussation. In this case there is a more or less spiral arrangement, and a tendency to alternation. Opposite phyllotaxis is particularly characteristic of orders, for example the Labiatae, and an instance may be cited in the common white dead-nettle (Lamium album). Again, in Caryo- phyllacese, or the chickweed order, opposite phyllotaxis is very frequent. In purging flax (Linum catharticum) the arrangement is seen not to be strictly decussate, so that the second pair of leaves does not exactly cut the first at right angles. Examples of the whorled or verticillate phyllotaxis may be found in the order Rubiaceae, which includes the common "bed-straw" (Galium). It is worthy of notice that in this case also the leaves frequently decussate with one another in successive whorls. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 3^ Each whorl may be made up of three or more leaves, a whorl with three leaves is described as ternate ; with four, quaternate, and so on. In cases where the whorls do not decussate a series of spirals is formed, similar to the secondary spirals already mentioned. Labiata?, as already observed, have opposite, decussate leaves, Begoniaceae alternate, Cinchonaceoe opposite, and Tiliaceae (linden) distichous. Such, then, are the three forms of leaf arrangement, and it will be seen what a conspicuous place phyllotaxis must take in morphological botany, both from the insight it gives us upon the strictly mathematical relation of the leaves to the axis, and from the aid it affords in all natural systems of classification. THE STING OF A BEE.* ALTHOUGH there are probably very few cabinets which do not contain a preparation of this portion of a bee's anatomy in a more or less compressed state, there is but little information con- cerning it in any of the best-known handbooks on the microscope. In some of the back numbers of Science-Gossip will be found some correspondence which it is worth while looking up ; and in Gosse's "Evenings at the Microscope" there is also a short account of it. But the best paper upon the matter, perhaps, is that in Vol. I., No. I, of the "American Quarterly Microscopical Journal," by Mr. J. D. Hyatt. Those who have read this will find that in the following remarks I do not quite follow his con- clusions, nor do I agree that all "the drawings and diagrams [illustrating his paper] are each delineations of the objects presented and very correct as regards the relative proportion of connected parts," although some undoubtedly are. A print of this paper is in the Quekett Library. The position the sting occupies is the last lower segment of the abdomen, the point of the lancet being just within the body ; where will be found a slight notch at the posterior angle of the segment which affords a place through which the sting may pass. Immediately above it lies the rectum. Upon cutting open the back of the bee and re- moving the alimentary canal the sting will at once be recognised by a pair of conspicuous white muscles, lying nearly parallel to each other and running in the direction of the length of the abdomen. When removed from its position it will present the appear- ance of fig. 19, but with certain muscles running in various directions, which have been omitted from the diagram for the sake of clearness. The framework consists of six distinct parts : (1) a flat plate of chitine (a figs. 19 and 20), articulated to b by a hinge at the outer top angle, and to c by a sort of pivot at the inner anterior angle ; (2) b con- * Read before the South London Microscopical and Natural History Club, April 15, 1S79. sists of a triangular-shaped piece united at its apex with a thin rod which curves inwards for a certain distance and then becomes straight for the rest of the length of the sting, bearing barbs (not shown in the figure) at the end — it also bears upon it a curious part & of considerable importance, according to my theory, in the ejection of poison ; (3) c another flat plate united at the anterior end with a curved rod, along the outer surface of which the curved portion, of b runs ; at the posterior end of c there is found a whitish membranous piece c' n often spoken of as the palpus. A ridge should be noticed running along the upper surface of c ; this is not always readily seen, as the inner edge of a frequently overlaid it. These pieces appear on each side of the organ. c is united with the central portion of the sting c K by a peculiar-shaped piece shown in fig. 21 and 22 c" — this central portion is hollow at the anterior end and then tapers away to almost a point, bearing barbs at the end on its upper surface. The next piece is a -■ or "merry-thought "-shaped piece d (figs. 19, 25), the posterior end being free, while the anterior ends are hinged to c\ There is one portion, e, which it will be convenient here to mention — this is a membranous bag enveloping the hollow part of c, c\ its internal surface is covered with hairs which appear trifurcated. The poison-bag is connected with the sting by a tube in the manner indicated in fig. 22 ; this tube appears to be strengthened by partial rings of chitine and also to be slightly creased or " concertina' d." The manner in which b va and the curved part of b are connected with c w and c l does not seem to be generally known, and probably would never be dis- covered from an examination of those specimens which are specially recommended for "displaying the lancet beautifully." One is constantly informed that "it is very difficult to show them ;" this is un- doubtedly so. A glance at fig. 23 will explain the matter. A is a section through a part of ?" and b ni (one part being removed) and B (copied from Mr. Hyatt's paper, my own specimen having been spoilt in mounting) is through c\ It will be seen that the c" bears along its whole length a T-shaped ridge, something like a railway rail, which fits into a cor- responding groove in b"\ consequently if the parts <£ m are " displayed " it is only at the expense of wrench- ing them from their proper fixings. This arrangement allows b' M to move both ways in the direction of its length and in no other. Although b\ fig. 20, appears to be placed on the side of b iu it is really on the upper side of it leaning over, as it were. Fig. 24 is an enlarged view of this part. The semicircular piece or flap a is of very transparent membrane (which requires staining to be easily seen) strengthened by rods of chitine ; it is also seen to be double with the two portions joined at the back by another piece of membrane ; this is hinged to b which, as will be seen in the figure, connects it with the main piece c. This part, the 3 J HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. " piston," moves up and down in the hollow portion of c'. Now it will be seen by comparing A (fig. 23) with B, that the surface of the piece upon which the T-ridge is, and on which the part b ii{ slides, is vertical in B, while in A it is much inclined, and in the series of sections given by Mr. Hyatt the transitions from one inclination to the other can be traced. It follows, explain my theory of the manner in which the poison is ejected. In the first place the poison bag appears to me to be composed of two coats, in neither of which have I been able to see any trace of muscle. Mr. Hyatt, in his paper before referred to, says, " A sac or reservoir is connected with the base of the sheath and discharges into it [a poisonous fluid] by Fig. 19. Fig. 20. Fig. 24. therefore, that b', the piston, in being moved along from the anterior end to the posterior, is thrown over to the inside, and the semicircular piece a (fig. 6) being hinged to b, any movement posteriorly through a fluid would press them apart. Turning then to fig. 22, it will be seen that the cavity c' is smaller at the lower end than at the upper. This is, perhaps, a convenient point for me to the rapid contractions of its muscular coats Rapid automatic contrac- tions of the muscular coats of the poison gland continue to pump out its venomous contents." He, in the second sentence, refers to his observations on a sting extracted from a living bee. But if, as I believe, the pieces b' t fig. 20, are alter- p; g . 22 , nately moving in the length of the cavity c', it will follow that the semicircular pieces a, fig. 24, will open as they are pressed forward, and with the inclination to one side which is necessarily given to them as they move from one end to the other (as explained by fig. 23, A, B), they will fill the whole width of Ihe posterior portion of c x fig. 22. As the piston moves forward it will drive before it any fluid that maybe in this "cylinder" c', and at the same time create a vacuum which will draw into it, HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 33 through the tube, the poison contained in the bag ; and here the use of the chitinous ridges in the tube leading from the bag becomes apparent, as it would otherwise collapse and stop the flow. I cannot see what purpose they would serve if the poison were forced out. On the return of the piston the semi- circular pieces fold together, and so not only allow of the passage forward of the other, but also return portion running from b to b l , fig. 19 ; in this place they prevent the escape of liquid behind the piston when it is passing forward. The point of next importance is how are these movements produced ? There are in the sting two pairs of somewhat obscure tendons, but which must not be overlooked. Their position is rather difficult to explain, but a reference to fig. 21 will show the Fig. 25. without materially impeding the flow'of the liquid. The poison passes down the tube formed by the two pieces b m , see fig. 23, A. In this figure will be noticed a kind of spur marked a ; this is the appearance presented (in section) of a thin ridge which passes along the entire length of these ^parts, and which when presssd together prevent the poison escaping. Mr. Hyatt not inaptly calls them^valves ; the con- tinuation of them will be noticed along the curved Fig. 26. arrangement. The piece c" carries a sort of platform from which the tendon a runs to the curved portion which connects c with c\ and c x is connected with the same piece by the tendon b. The first pair of muscles which probably come into play are a pair found on the under side of the sting, starting at the outer anterior angle of a, near the point at which it hinges with b, and running to the last segment of the bee's body in such a way that its contraction will draw forward the whole apparatus. This muscle is shown in fig. 25, where the others have been omitted to prevent confusion. The position only of the muscles is indicated in the diagrams, not their size or shape. The folds in the tube connecting the poison bag allow of its stretching to accommodate itself to the altered position of the apparatus without inconvenience. The next pair run from the anterior ends of d in the direction of the length of the string, and attached to the ridge in the centre of c ; see 2, fig. 26. The action of this pair is to depress the whole of c 1 and ur volumes of "Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society," "Geologist Magazine" 6 volumes, Penning's "Field last four volumes of Geology," &c — F. G. S., 3 Melbourne Road, Leicester. Black Podurae scales, mounted dry or in balsam, and straw bristle mould in balsam, for any good mounted objects.— E. Holmes, 149 Essex Road, X. Lepidoptera for birds' eggs.— \\ m. Simmons, 6 New Walk Terrace, York. Limacina Antarctica, for atlanta, firola, hyalaea, dipnyl- lidia, spirula or voluta (animal indispensable).— J. Turner, Davenport, Stockport. . Wanted, microscopic cabinet, for slides, material, Sc, exchange small collection of British coleoptera, gold ring, &c. ; write for list to F. S. Lyddon, 32 High Street, Warminster, Wilts. Have vols. i. and ii. of Cassell's "Science for All," and vol. i. of "Great Industries of Britain " (unbound); wanted, magic lantern or offer.— A. AUetsu, 11 Foley Street, Langham Place, London, W. For well-mounted slide of hedgehog tick, send really good slide to Geo. Turvill, East Worldham, Alton. British mosses, marine algae, zoophytes, &c, offered to collectors in foreign countries in exchange. Wanted corre- spondents in all parts of the world, particularly South America, China, East Indies, West Indies, and Africa.— B. B. Scott, 24 Sel'don Street, Kensington, Liverpool. _ . West Indian marine soundings, micro specimens of foreign mosses, algae and zoophytes, for micro slides or herbarium specimens of algae, mosses, or zoophytes (British or foreign).— B B Scott 24 Seldon Street, Kensington, Liverpool. Wanted, chalk, wealden, oolitic, and Devonian fossils in exchange for permian and carboniferous limestone. Address, Henry Horner, jun., Sunderland. "Natural History Review," bound, 1857 and 1859 (bis), and many odd numbers; " Cornhill," unbound, for i860, 1863, 1S64 1875- "Good Words," unbound, for 1867, 1868, 1869; " Punch " odd numbers for 1876, 1877, and many odd numbers, for many years of " Illustrated London News," in exchange for "Natural History Magazine" or books. Wanted, "Natural History Review," i860, April and October.— Alpha, 18 Upper Fitzwilliam Street, Dublin. . Duplicates— Mytilus barbatus, Calyptrage 36.] Cambridgeshire. Cambridge. Albert H. Waters, B.A., 1 Panton Street. Geology, Entomology, particularly Lepi- doptera. Interested in Natural Histoiy generally. Cornwall. Falmouth. Ernest Bullmore. Phanerogams, Aero- gettous Cryptogams. D 2 s* HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Devonshire. Exeter. W. H. Newberry, Elm Grove House. Ornithology. Hampshire. Near Newbury (Berkshire), Miss Marian Ridley, Hollington House. Will assist by post only, in determining British Ferns and Mosses. Middlesex. London. G. S. Boulger, F.L.S., F.G.S., 144 Kensington Park Road, W. Biology, Geology, and Mineralogy. Hornsey. T.J. Lane, Rise House, Hornsey Rise, N. Mammalia, Aves, Reptitia, Amphibia (British). Somersetshire. Bridgwater. Wm. Stoate, Elm Grove, Wimbdon. Microscopy, Oology (Foreign and English). ON ALTERNATE DEHISCENCE OF ANTHERS. IN Sir J. Lubbock's book on "Insects and Flowers," there occurs the following account of the move- ments and ripening of the anthers of Parnassia. The phenomena described are so curious that the writer was induced to take the first opportunity that pre- sented itself, to examine them personally. As the passage referred to is brief, it may be quoted entire. "It" (Parnassia) "has ten stamens, of which, however, only five bear anthers, while the others secrete honey at the base, and terminate in globular glands. The five polliniferous anthers ripen not simultaneously but successively, and as each ripens it places itself right on the top of the stigma, with its back to it, and the pollen is then discharged from the anthers on the side away from the stigma, so that it is scarcely possible for any to fall on it, and this is done by the five stamens in succession." Quoted from Bennett's " How Flowers are Fertilized," p. 19. The italics are not in the original, and are placed to indicate the parts of the description that do not appear to agree with the facts, so far as one could note them. The observations were repeated on a number of flowers, obtained from Bedfordshire, Hert- fordshire, and Northumberland, and were continued through the summer and early autumn of 1878 and 1879. The conclusion arrived at was that the parts of the description referring to the placing of each anther on the top of the stigma, and the successive ripening of them are scarcely correct. The following account is based upon observations on some two hundred blossoms, and maybe taken as pretty closely in accordance with the facts of the case. When the corolla expands the stamens are recumbent on the ovary, and closely applied to it, forming a compact whorl on the top of the stigma. First one of the anthers is slightly elevated, and as the dehiscence continues it is carried forward, describing an arc in its course, till the filament lies extended between the petals. The empty anther is suspended over the edge of the sepal, to which the stamen is opposite, and soon falls off. These movements are repeated by Fig- 37. — Grass of Parnassia (Parnassia ]>aluslr is). the stamens, invariably in alternate order, which may 14 5 be expressed thus, 3 2, or 2 3, and never in such 54 * 13 4 a succession as would be represented by 2 5 or 2 5. 3 4 1 If a careful examination be made of the illustration of Parnassia, in " Flowers : their Origin, Perfumes, &c," by J. E. Taylor (our Editor), it will be seen to be confirmatory of the above description. Subsequent observations showed that this alternate HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 53 ripening of anthers is not peculiar to this plant alone, but occurs also in the exquisite flowers of Menyanthes trifoliata (fig. 38). As it is improbable that these two plants present isolated instances of such peculiarities, it would be interesting to extend the observations to others, which have the same number of stamens as petals. In many instances in which the stamens are bicyclic, and thus double the number of the petals, the dehiscence occurs first, of the outer whorl or those opposite the sepals, and afterwards the inner cycle or those opposite the petals. In these instances the alternation is between the cycles of the stamens, and agrees with the sequence of their development. Examples of this are furnished by several species of the genera Stellaria, Saxifraga, Epilobium, and Fig. 38. — Bog-bean (Menyanthes trifoliata}. Lilium. Observations were made in May, 1S79, on Saxifraga granitlata and S. umbrosa. Both these are proterandrous, and the stigmas remained closely opposed to each other, till the whole of the anthers on the same flower had discharged their contents. In both cases the outer cycle of stamens ripened first, and afterwards the inner, which alternates with the other. In S. granulata each anther as it ripens bends over the unopened stigmas, thus occupying a position very near the centre of the corolla. An insect visiting a flower in which the ripened anther is thus placed strikes it with that part of its body which would come in contact with the stigmas of another flower that are in a receptive condition. When the anthers have discharged their pollen, they return to the position which they occupy when the corolla expands, which is near the circumference of the perianth, and thus the stamens do not prevent easy access to the stigmas. Their mission having been accomplished they are moved out of the way so as not to be a hindrance. In this instance there may be observed three move- ments of the stamens, which are — a motion towards the circumference as the flower expands, an alternate motion towards the centre as the anthers ripen, followed by another movement outwards. During the months of June and July, 1879, many observa- tions were made on the flowers of Stellaria holostea, S. graminea, Scilla nutans, and Epilobium fiirsutum, and there was no exception to the rule that the dehiscence of the two cycles of stamens was in alternate order. J. Saunders. SKIN PRESERVING. JUST at this time of year, when the " close season " is in abeyance, and when pottering round the hedgerows for the chance of a rabbit, one occasionally meets with feathers or fur worth pre- serving, I have been several times asked for hints as to making up skins, till a competent stuffer, a rarity unluckily, can be met with ; and not being without experience of my own as to the difficulty of the matter, perhaps a few simple hints which may assist in overcoming the first difficulty, the premier pas qui coi'tte may be useful . With a little practice, a bird's skin can be removed from the body as easily as that of a quadruped, and with a much more satisfactory result, as in the one case, there is a thick coating of feathers which will make up for any slight deficiency in the perfection of the skin itself, while, in the latter case, the greatest possible care must be taken, not to stretch the skin in the least ; or a bare patch, which no amount of art will cover, will be the result. So that premising that the method of skinning is in both cases precisely the same, it will be as well to take the easier subject, the bird, on which to commence. By "making up a skin," so arranging and pre- serving it is understood, that a professional taxi- dermist will have no difficulty in softening and setting it up, after a reasonable lapse of time, — while the plumage of the bird is preserved, as nearly as possible unruffled, in the ordinary position when dead. The tools required are, I had almost said, none ; but nothing more than a penknife is necessary, while a stout pair of pointed nail scissors are more handy for cleaning, and by no means cumbrous. Taking the bird as it lies, yet untouched, it is better to leave any dried blood stains to be removed after skinning. There is no advantage in cleaning at once, as after removal the feathers can be grasped from within, as well as from without, and there is less chance of stretching, the thing to be guarded against throughout. Any wet stains had better be removed at once with a bit of sponge, as they will be infinitely more troublesome when dry. 54 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Having disposed of stains, notice where there are any wounds in the skin, for future guidance : one is very likely to increase a rent if it is unexpectedly come upon. Then take the bird by the beak, and smooth down the feathers with the free hand ; placing the bird carefully on its back when every thing is in place. The next step is to prepare the way for skinning the limbs. Taking the leg by the "knee," where the bare shank meets the feathers, and by the bone just above the joint, the leg is snapped — taking care that the pointed ends of the bone do not injure the skin — just within the commencement of the feathered portion. The same is done with the wings, and the ruffled feathers are replaced. If the thick feathers covering the breast are now separated, a broad bare space will be found running the whole length of the body. Along this line an incision is made with the penknife, from the pro- jecting end of the breastbone to the arms ; then keeping the feathers as much as possible from the edges of the cut, though, if carefully made, there is not the least bleeding from the breast, and the special covering of the intestines is not cut through. The skin is separated with the back of the knife from the sides as far as possible, without lengthening the incision. Then carefully working down by the side of the abdomen, the legs are reached ; the skin is turned back till the broken bone is found, and the muscles cut through ; freeing the skin of the leg, and leaving only the broken bone end in the pocket formed by the removal of the "drumstick." The other leg is treated in the same way. The connection of the arms with the abdomen must next be severed, and the skin turned back to the tail : the attachment of the spine to the tail severed, and then the skin of the back is carefully — for owing to the thinness of the covering here, the slightest stretcli will make a woful gap in the feathers — reflected till the wings are reached. These are treated in the same manner as the legs, and then the skin is entirely removed from the body, leaving only the head and neck to be completed. The neck is cut through at its junction with the chest, as it and the head are treated separately. So far this sounds like a very lengthy proceeding, but, in practice, the skinning of the whole body of, say a thrush, does not occupy more than five minutes, an.l there should not be more than the very slightest soiling of the fingers, if any, and none whatever of the feathers. Do not throw the body away, as it will be useful in finishing. We now come to the head, which is the hardest part of the whole operation, since any stretching here, beyond what is unavoidable, must be very carefully guarded against. And, in mentioning this, it is well to remember that the skin should be supported during the whole process as much as possible, being allowed to rest on the tables, or on the knee, which, for myself, I prefer, as the weight of the feathers alone is enough to cause an awkward stretch in the thin backskin. The head is cleaned by turning it backwards through the skin of the neck in most birds. Some of the waterfowl though must have a special slit made below the beak, to allow the skull to be turned through, but they are very few, and it is only a modification of the usual process. Taking hold of the end of the neck, where it was severed from the body, the skin is gradually turned back till the skull is reached. The head is then steadied by grasping the back from the outside, and the skin gently pushed back over the smooth cranium till the eyes are reached. Then, grasping the exposed skull, the eyelids are detached from the orbit, and the skin turned forward to the commencement of the beak. This leaves the head ready for cleaning, which is generally found the hardest part of the finishing process. I find that the best and quickest way, and one which answers exceedingly well, is to insert the point of the knife into the base of the skull as far forward as possible between the two halves of the lower mandible, passing it up to the roof of the skull, and then by cutting backwards along the sides of the lower mandibles to the back of the skull, removing the tongue and the whole attachment of the neck and its organs with about one-third of the skull, allowing the contents to be removed entirely. When the eyes are next removed, the anterior two- thirds only of the skull remain attached to the beak, and the whole is perfectly cleaned. The skin is now ready for making up. Of course some preservative composition is a desideratum ; and the best is the time-honoured arsenical soap. That which I have used, and which answers perfectly, is made of one ounce of white arsenic to four ounces of yellow soap. The soap is first shredded into a pot ; and melted by being stood in hot water ; and the arsenic stirred in gradually, then allowed to cool ; covered, and a poison label affixed. But in case there are nothing but the ordinary household stores available, skins will keep very well, and for an indefinite time if the moth be kept from them, by curing with equal parts of alum and salt. This is rubbed into the skin extended on a board, and allowed to dry ; after which the superfluous crystals are brushed away. This however has disadvantages, owing to the hard coating given to the skin, but for curing skins not meant for further stuffing than sufficient to retain their form, is quite satisfactory. We now come to the final making up ; and here the materials required are again simple ; the preser- vative, tow, a needle and cotton, stout thread, and the scissors. The first step is to examine the skin, and remove any superfluous fat which may have been left attached ; and to see that no portions of muscle remain on the broken ends of the limb bones ; in HARD 1 VI CKE ' S S CIE NCE -GOS SIP. 55 doing which the preservative is well rubbed over the interior of the pouch formed by the skin of the legs and wings. Before returning the ends of the bones into the sheath, a shred of tow is wrapped round the end of the bone, and then formed into a pad as nearly as possible the size of the removed portion which still remains attached to the body, and the limbs will require no further treatment. The whole of the skull, inside and out, is now treated with preservative, and the orbits filled with tow to as nearly as possible the natural amount of fulness given by the eyes when in their place — and the back of the skull is replaced by a ball of tow rolled up tightly, so as to fit the interior and give the requisite roundness lost by the removal of the hinder third in cleaning. The head is then gently returned through the "glove finger " formed by the neck, and any sinking about the eyes rectified by inserting more scraps of tow through the eyelids. The neck is then filled by gently passing up shreds of tow by means of a stick, taking care not to overfill it, or leave lumps of tow evident by their undue protrusion. It is better, at this stage, to bring together any small gaps in the skin caused by shot or accident during skinning, by means of the needle and cotton, avoiding the rumpling of plumage which would be caused by including the root-ends of feathers in a stitch. There only remains now to pad the body to prevent undue shrinking during the drying stage. This may be done either by merely filling up with loose tow, folding the skin over and allowing it to dry in position, or by making a fresh body of tow to replace the natural one as nearly as possible ; and this latter method is, I think, the better. Taking the body, which has been kept as the model, a lump of tow is rolled into a compact ball, rather larger than the required size, and of the same proportions. The strong thread is then wound around it tightly, reducing it to the right size, and with a little management, giving a pretty correct model of the contour of the breast, &c. If anything, when completed, the tow body should be smaller than the natural one, to allow for the unavoidable shrinking of the drying skin. It is then placed in position, and the skin of the breast brought together evenly across it by a few stitches in the edges of the bare streak along which the first cut was made. Holding the skin by the beak, the feathers are carefully smoothed down, and returned to their natural positions. There will be no difficulty in the pose of the wings, which, unless stretched, will fall perfectly naturally into their places. The skin should be laid carefully on its back on a flat surface, in the same position as when held by the beak, securing the wings, if necessary, by a thread passing round the body, and left untouched till dry, which will take a longer or shorter period, according to the size of the specimen, and the state of the weather. Occasionally during drying there will be a tendency of some few feathers to become prominent, owing to contraction ; if they are few, they may be removed when the skin is dry ; but, in the case of a tuft of plumage, they must be kept down, either by a weight, or by a strip of paper crossing them and pinned through the skin to the tow body ; but, unless the body is overstuffed, there should be no difficulty as to smoothness of feathers. Perhaps the thick tuft covering the shoulders is most prone to rebel, and I have often found it useful to surround the wings with a broad strip of paper, secured by one pin through the breast, instead of the thread. Quadrupeds are prepared, when small, in pre- cisely the same way ; but, owing to the shrinking of lips, &c, they are never satisfactory ; and if re- quired for stuffing, had better be packed off at once, unless they can be finished on the spot. Still, skins are ornamental, and I may conclude by one or two remarks as to preparing them for other purposes, than stuffing, e.g., mats. For this purpose I have found nothing better than the alum and salt already mentioned. Taking the animal, the body is laid on its back, a cut made through the skin from chin to tail, and two transverse cuts across the first to a short distance along the inner side of the legs, as far down towards the feet as the length of skin to be removed from the limb requires. In case the head is not to be retained, a cut is made from the bridge of the nose, past the angles of the jaws, to the first cut below the chin on each side, so that when the whole skin is removed, the included portion remains attached to the jaws, while the eyelids and ears are removed with the rest of the skin, the bone is drawn from the tail. The next step is to tack the skin, with the hair down- wards to a board ; stretching it only just sufficiently to render it quite ilat, and putting the tacks as near the edge as possible. Any adherent fat is then removed with a blunt knife, and the whole surface slightly scraped. It is then thoroughly rubbed with equal parts of alum and salt, and set aside for two clays to dry. A second curing, and in two more days, a third are required, and the skin should be by the end of a week, nearly dry ; but it will be perfectly stiff and hard. Taking the blunt knife, the best form of which is the ordinary round pointed table knife, the skin is thoroughly scraped, and the scraping continued till the hard surface is removed, and the skin is as pliant as washleather. In a day or two more a second, very rarely a third, scraping may be neces- sary, and the skin is then fit for use, and perfectly sweet. There is one beautiful skin which deserves special mention in connection with this method of curing — the mole's. The best way to preserve it is by making a circular incision round the chest, as close to the "hands" as possible, and then turning the skin inside out over the body ; so that as much as 56 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. possible of the skin is left untouched. The method of drying is to fit the pocket thus obtained, over a wooden cylinder, about twelve inches in length, and of the requisite diameter, and proceeding in the usual way. The hind feet may be cut off close to the skin, as they leave no appreciable hole. So far I have given an outline which may be useful to some of the readers of Science-Gossip. I do not lay claim to much originality in method, but I have tried to put myself in the place of a beginner, in describing the ins and outs of the simple process which puzzled myself at first, and to give some idea of the way in which I have learnt to overcome the difficulties I have met with. If I have succeeded, it may be that a rare specimen may be saved from loss, and I am content. Who knows whether, if some Dutchman had only known how to make up a skin, there might not be a stuffed specimen yet existing of the Dodo ! Charles D. Whistler. A STARFISH BED IN THE RH/ETIC FORMATION. By W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.S. THERE is I believe in the Rhcetic Formation, a layer which deserves the name of a " star- fish bed." The earliest allusion to the occurrence of these interesting fossils in this deposit, is in Mr. Chas. Moore's excellent paper " On the Zones of the Lower Lias, and the Avicula contorta Zone," " Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society," vol. xvii. p. 483 (1861), where he writes, " Ophiura, a single joint found in the clay band at Vallis, Somersetshire, appears to have represented this or an allied genus in the Rhaetic age." In February 1873, I found a perfect starfish in the Rhsetic black shales of the Spinney Hills, near Leicester, and further search detected a thin sandy layer about half an inch thick, literally made of the scattered joints of such an organism. Other examples which I have since found, show a disc of one-eighth of an inch in diameter, with an extreme breadth across the arms of about an inch. My specimens were of such a fragile nature that they would not bear carriage, but they were seen by the Rev. P. B. Brodie, F.G.S. , who alluded to them in a paper on the " Lower Lias and Rhcetics of the Midlands," "Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society," vol. xxx. p. 746, 1874. This Spinney Hill section is minutely described in my paper " On the Occurrence of the Kinetic Bed.-, in Leicestershire." Q. J. G. S. vol. xxxii. p. 212. About this time, Dr. Thos. Wright, of Chelten- ham, the well-known palaeontologist, described some specimens of a starfish from the Rha-tic beds at Hildesheim, in Hanover, " Zeitschrift der Deutschen geol. Gesellschaft," under the name of Ophiolepis Damesii ; from these the British specimens present no perceptible difference. In 1875, Mr. G. Embrey, of Gloucester, obtained the same species from the Rhcetic black shales at Garden Cliff, Westbury (specimens may be seen in the Jermyn Street Museum), and the Rev. P. B. Brodie has also found it near Stratford-on-Avon, and Mr. H. J. Elsee near Rugby ; in Science-Gossip for December 1878, I see Mr. T. Stock mentions that he found a " starfish " (doubtless O. Damesii) at Fig. 39. — Fossil Starfish {Ophiolepis Damesii). Lower side. Fig. 40. — Fossil Starfish (Oj>hiolcJ>is Damesii). Upper side. Aust Cliff. In the same month I paid a visit under the guidance of Mr. Storrie, of Cardiff, to the famous Rhatic section which stretches along the coast from Penarth to Lavernock. Besides other good fossils, we got a fine slab (now in the Cardiff Museum) covered with specimens of the three characteristic Rhcetic shells : Cassianclla contorta, Protoca?-dinm Philip- planum, and Pecten Valonicnsis ; between the mol- luscan remains, I was delighted to recognise several specimens of Ophiolepis Damesii. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 57 Everywhere this Rhaetic starfish bed occupies, I believe, the same relative position, viz. about half- way between the commencement of the black shales and the first band or nodular layer of limestone, in which Estheria muiuta var. Brodicana is usually found. It is somewhat singular that this beautiful brittle-star should turn up almost simultaneously at so many points, after having so long remained unknown. It shows the importance of knowing "what to look for," as Faraday said, and thin and almost im- perceptible as this starfish bed of Rhaetic age may be, I believe from its occurrence at points so far distant as Leicester and Penarth, that it will be found on or about a definite horizon in almost every Rhaetic section. The fossil is of some interest too, as proving the undoubtedly marine origin of the Rhretic strata. THE ROSE OF JERICHO. IN the January number of this Magazine, there is an interesting account of the Anastatica Hiero- chwitica, commonly, but erroneously (as I think) known as the Rose of Jericho. Old Gerarde gives capital figures of this plant in \ round the Dead Sea,' with reason, that it is Fig. 41. — Rose of Jericho [Saulcya ?). Expanded by three minutes' immersion in tepid water. its expanded and unexpanded state, and quaintly remarks that " the coiner spoiled the name in the mint, for of all plants that have been written of there is not any more unlike unto the rose, or any kind thereof than this plant." There 'is however another plant growing in the same country as the Anastatica and possessing the very same hygrometrical properties, but in a far higher degree, which closely resembles a rose in its general form, and above all the heraldic or crusader's rose. It is described by De Saulcy in his "Journey and, he thinks, apparently " the real Rose of Jericho, long lost sight of after the fall of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, and replaced by the Anastatica or Kaff-maryam." Now some years ago I had for a short time in my possession a specimen of this plant, which together with one of the Anastatica, was found in a small box in the collection of the late Sir James Smith, and I forward you three drawings which I made of it ; two Fig. 42. — True Rose of Jericho [SauLya ?). There are neither leaves nor roots. (Natural size). of them represent the unexpanded head (a back and front view) (fig. 42) and the third (fig. 41) the same with the carpels fully expanded, and of the rich brown colour I have painted it, after immersion in warm water for three minutes. The drawings are of the natural size and the late Sir William Hooker, to whom they were shown, pronounced them to be very accurate representations of some kind of Mesembryanthemum. The lady who lent me the specimen is long since dead, but I have no doubt it is still in the possession of her daughter who is an accomplished botanist. It had neither leaves nor root. I can find no mention of the plant in Tristram or elsewhere. Diss. T. E. Amyot. Mortality of Shrewmice. — The Rev. J. G. Wood in his "Garden Friends and Foes," writing of the common shrew, says :— " It has many enemies, and, moreover, is liable to a kind of epidemic in the later months of the year, which kills it in great numbers, hundreds being found lying dead without any apparent cause for their death." I should think that the fact of their death being caused by an epidemic of some kind, would account for cats, owls, &c, not eating the dead bodies. I believe it is a fact, however, that cats, though they are always ready to kill a shrew, never eat the body, as they do that of a mouse. — G. M. Doe, Torrington. 58 HARD IV I CKE'S S CIE NCE-GOS SIP. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE TOAD. By J. Arthur Eisdel. THE toads [Bufonidcc) are a family of the sub- order sabentia, order batrachia, class amphibia, division vertebrata. Only two species are British, viz., Bufo vitlgaris, the common toad, and Bnfo calamita, the natterjack toad. I shall confine my remarks to one member of this family, Bufo vulgaris, the common toad, beginning at the earliest visible stage of his existence, namely the egg, tracing that existence on to maturity, and then, having thoroughly gone into the toad's natural history, I shall examine a general question or two about him ; after which I will just describe the natterjack toad, Bufo calamita. In the months of March and April may be found in great abundance in the stagnant water of many of our ditches and ponds the ova eggs or spawn of the toad. These ova are arranged in a double series, placed alternately and perfectly regular, and are enveloped in a jelly-like mass which forms a con- tinuous line, extending to the length of three or four feet, sometimes even twenty or thirty feet. The embryo (for whose development immersion in water is necessary) is found, in the first place, to consist of a small globular body. In a short time the sphere begins to elongate, the head becomes pro- minent, the tail begins to show itself. In time also a small projection takes place on each side of the head, which is the earliest indication of the branchia' or gills, which soon become visible and gradually more developed. In a short time longer the first voluntary motion of the embryo is discovered on the application of any means of disturbance, but it con- sists only of a slight movement of the head or tail. Later on there is a slight division of the branchiae into lobes, and the appearance of the beautiful phe- nomenon, the circulation of the blood through these organs. 'Hie embryo, which is still confined to a curved position by the envelopes, now frequently extends itself by sudden jerks as if to get free, which it eventually does by tearing the membrane of the egg- The tadpole, as the little creature is now called, is now hatched. In our own climate, in the ordinary temperature of our spring, this hatching does not take place until at least a month. The development may be greatly hastened by a constant elevation of temperature. After hatching, the branchiae speedily enlarge, and continue to do so till they arrive at their maximum of development. No sooner do these branchiae arrive at this stage than they begin to diminish in size ; they become obtuse and arc- gradually so reduced as to be withdrawn within the branchial cavity, and concealed by a little oper- culum of the integument. When this is done the tadpole has the form of an enormous belly and head in one undistinguishable outline. The eyes are now perfectly formed ; the holders, which are small simple organs placed on the under surface of the head, enable the little animal to attach itself by means of a viscid secretion at their extremities, have become much diminished in size ; the mouth, which has horny cutting processes, has acquired movable lips, and the little creature, which has hitherto derived its sustenance from its own resources, or by absorption, now seeks its food amid softening and decomposing vegetable matter, which forms its principal nourish- ment until it reaches the toad stage. The tadpole now undergoes but little change in its external form for a considerable time, but increases rapidly in bulk. On examining the tadpole internally we find that it has an extremely long intestinal canal coiled spirally within its large abdomen, which, for a reason I will mention later on, is very long in proportion to the length of the tadpole's body. Now how does the tadpole breathe ? The water enters the mouth by the orifice of the nostrils, which are supplied with valves. When in the cavity of the mouth, which is well closed on all sides, with the exception of the throat, where are placed the branchial slits, the water acted upon by the muscles, which cover them, traverses these spaces and bathes the branchiae before its exit through the branchial holes. The blood which is driven by the heart into the branchial vessels is then distributed, as it is in the fishes, in fact the respiration and the circulation of the tadpole are very similar to those processes in the fishes. And now return to the exterior of the tadpole. By-and- by a little tubercle appears on each side of the vent ; this tubercle soon acquires somewhat the form of the perfect limb, the toes budding as it were at the extremity, but still it continues very short. Mean- while the anterior extremities are also budding forth in the same maimer and gradually assume their distinct and final form, though not so soon as do the hind limbs. As the_ hind limbs become developed, the tail, the former organ of progression, is removed by absorption, not thrown off as has been erroneously stated. This is a gradual process, the absorption beginning at the apex and progressing onwards to the base until the whole is removed, so that the posterior part of the body becomes rounded. The tadpole's mouth too widens, and the eyes are guarded by eyelids, while the belly lengthens. Externally the tadpole has now assumed the form of a young toad ; let us see what has been going on internally. The intestines have become shorter, the branchiae have been removed by absorption, and most beautiful cellular lungs have been developed, while the circula- tion has undergone an entire change. I may add that it is not until the approach of autumn that the young toads, having assumed that form in manner just described, come to seek their food on the land. And now we will suppose our young toad to be full grown ; let us examine it. Its skin_ is naked, as it HARDJVICRE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 59 is called, being without scales, and is covered on the back and sides of the animal with small tubercles or follicular glands which secrete an acrid humour, more about which later on. ( To be continued.) LIST OF "LOCAL FLORAS BRITISH ISLES. OF THE {Continued from p. 3.] :-i Had I been acquainted with the "Botanical Biblio- graphy of the British Counties," by H. Trimen, M.B., F.L.S., published March, April, May, June, August, 1874, in the "Journal of Botany" (West, Newman & Co., is. monthly), I should not have commenced this list. A few additional titles are .given below, but for full lists refer to the above- mentioned paper, or to the "Student's Guide to the Literature of Botany," by B. D. Jackson, F.L.S., shortly to be published by the " Index Society " (2U. subs., H. B. Wheatley, Hon. Sec, 5 Minford Gardens, West Kensington Park, W.) Berkshire. "Cont. to F. of," J. Britten, in Pro. Newbury District Field Club, 187 1. Buckinghamshire. " F. of," J. Britten, 1867 (a catalogue merely). Cornwall, see Devonshire. " F. of D. and C." (not descriptive). J. W. N. Keys, Trans. D. and C. Nat. Hist. Soc. 1866. Plymouth and Druonport. "F. of" (descriptive), G. Banks, F.L.S., 1831 ; W. Byers, Devonport. Torquay. " Handbook of the F. of " (descriptive). Robert Stewart, M.R.C.S., i860; Hamilton & Co. London. Gloucestershire. Cheltenham. " Bot. Guide to," J. Buckman, 1844. Linn. sys. Kent. "Floral Guide to East" (Linn, sys.), with map, by M. H. Cowell, 1839, 4s. (not descriptive). "Wild Flowers of Dover and its neighbourhood," English and Latin names, is., published Dover : T. Rigden ; London : Van Voorst. Thanet. " F. Thanetensis." Flower, 1847. Norfolk. "F. of," Trimmer, 1866. Oxfordshire. Banbury. "Catalogue of Plants of" (Linn. sys.). Geo. Gulliver, F.R.S., F.Z.S., 1841 ; Bogue. Cryptogams included. Surrey. Battersea and Clapham. "Cat. of Rarer Plants;" W. Pamplin, 1827. Sussex. Brighton. "Nat. Hist, of," Mrs. Merrifield, i860. Warwickshire. Rugby. "Register of Tlants" (within 10 miles), mean and earliest flowering dates, localities of less common species. L. Cumming, and II . W. Trott, 1S76, Cfd. ; Billington, Rugby. Wilts. " F. of," T. B. Flower, in vols. iv. and succeeding, of W. Arch, and Nat. Hist. Mag. 1857-73." . Worcestershire. "Botany of," with map, Edwin Lees, F.L.S., 1867; W. Nat. Clubs, pub. Yorkshire. " F. of W. Riding " (Ainsty excluded) ; 2 maps, Miall & Carrington, 1862, about 2s. 6d. ; Pamplin. SCOTLAND. Aberdeen, Banff, and Kincardine, "Botanist's Guide to Counties," G. Dickie, F.L.S., i860. Aberdeen (town), "A. F. of," P. H. Macgillivray, A.M., 1853, 2s. 6d. ; Whittaker. Lanarkshire (and the whole valley), " Clydesdale Flora" (Glossary and diagrams), R. Hennedy. 4th ed., 1878, 5^. ; H. Hopkins, Glasgow. IRELAND. Ulster, " F. of, and Botanist's Guide to N. of I." G. Dickie, F.L.S., 1864, is. ; Aitchison, Belfast. Lovell Reeve, London. Ulster, " List of the Mosses of," A. Stewart, F.B.S.E., in Report of the Belfast Nat Field Club, 1S74. Co. Antrim, Belfast. " F. Belfastiensis " geog. and geol. distrib., Ralph Tate, F.G.S., 1863 ; may be had from R. B. Matthews, Victoria Street, Belfast, at 6d. It seems to me that the object of a "Local Flora" diners from that of a general one, in that it should point out the exact spot where a plant is to be found. Mere catalogues without localities, or with vague remarks, such as "near Sheffield," seem to be practically useless. Unless the plant be a rare one, a general " Flora " is quite as useful as such a local one. Minute description of the exact position, roads and paths to be taken, &c, such as Baedeker gives in his guide-books would be a very great advantage. This is merely a suggestion. No doubt many will disagree from me, but let them test the value of a bare list, by trying to discover any less common plant by its aid. Tapton Elms, Sheffield. Bernard Hobson. 6o HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. NOTES ON THE NESTS OF EUROPEAN TRAP-DOOR SPIDERS. By G. H. Bryan. SINCE returning to England, I have been much surprised that the trap-door spiders are not more fully described in any popular work on entomology, &c, that I have seen. Had the descriptions been omitted altogether, I should have supposed it was because they were out of place, as referring to spiders, and not to true insects ; however, they are mentioned, but the reader is led to infer, either that there is only one species of trap-door spider, commonly called the mason spider, or else, that all the spiders build their nest of a simple silken tube with a tight-fitting door at the surface of the ground. Now certainly the nests of some species are much more ingeniously constructed than the simple nest Fig. 43— Cork or Plug-nest of Trap-door Spider (open). 3 Fig. 4^.— Cork or Plug-nest of Trap-door Spider (closed). usually described, and it seems strange, therefore, that no short popular sketch has, so far as I know, been written on this interesting subject. Messrs. Kirby and Spence in their " Introduction to Entomology," say: "Several species of mason spiders form nests of this kind. Among these are the Mygale nidulans of Walckenaer, and the Mygale cratiens, or clay kneader of Latreille. Another is the Mygale camentaria of Latreille, found in the south of France. An allied species, the Mygale Sauvagesii is found in Corsica." The Rev. J. G. Wood in his "Homes without Hands," describes the nests of exotic trap-door spiders rather fully, but does not allude to any found in Europe, nearer than Albania. Nor does he even mention those found in that out of the way corner of Europe, in an article in the " Sunday Magazine " for December 1879, entitled "More about Spiders." He says: "There are many species of trap-door spiders, the best known of which is a native of Jamaica, and is scientifically termed Cteniza nidulans. His accompanying drawing of a spider and nest, is identical with the one in my English edition of "The Universe" by Pouchet, and which is there described as representing the mason spider, Mygale camentaria of Latreille, and its dwelling. Before the late Mr. Moggridge's valuable work, on "Harvesting Ants and trap-door Spiders," was published, little appears to have been known about the European species. In his second volume, or supplement, he makes a complete re-arrangement of them, and two species are named after himself, Cteniza and Nemesia Moggridgii. Their old names are Cteniza fodiens and Nemesia camentaria. How- ever, as " Harvesting Ants, &c," is rather an expensive handbook, it is not much read by dilet- tanti, except at Mentone, where Mr. Moggridge was so well known, and where the spiders abound. Fig. 45.— Wafer-lidded nest of Trap-door Spider (open). Fig. 46.— Wafer-lidded nest of Trap-door Spider (closed). There are two genera of trap-door spiders ; namely, the Ctenizas which make the so-called cork nests, and the Nemesias which make generally wafer nests ; both genera being plentiful in the south of Europe. In the cork nests (figs. 43 and 44), the door is thick and fits in to the top of the tube like a plug or short cork, while in the wafer nests (as shown at figs. 45 and 46), the door is comparatively thin and just laps over the edge of the tube. The Nemesia Moggridgii is an exception to the general rule of Nemesias, and constructs a nest of the "cork" type. It inhabits the south of France, and is the one most generally described under its old name of N. camentaria. All the cork nests consist of a simple unbranched silken tube, with one door at the top, but the wafer nests are usually more complicated. The simplest form of wafer nest I found occurring in great numbers on the hill of Posilipo near Naples. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 61 No Neapolitan species are mentioned by Moggridge, but this one is possibly identical with the Nemesia Simoni found by him at Bordeaux. It is a simple silken tube without inner door or branch, and sinking ten or twelve inches deep into the ground (fig. 43). Another species abounds in the same locality, and may be the A r . suffitsa described as being found at Montpellier. The tube of its nest differs from that of the preceding in having an upward branch coming nearly, but not quite to the surface of the earth as in (fig. 47 a). Alluding to A T . Simoni and N. sitffusa Mr. Mog- gridge says, "It may perhaps be no more than a coincidence, but we can scarcely avoid commenting upon the fact, that, just as the Montpellier wafer nest Fig. 47. — Sections of nests of Trap-door Spiders. is simpler in construction than any found along the Riviera, so in like manner is the Bordeaux nest simpler than that of Montpellier. It thus becomes tempting to ask whether in the case of these wafer nests, we shall not discover that the colder and damper climates are the homes of the simpler types, while the warmer and drier ones, where more food, more enemies and more competitors are found, are reserved for the architects of the more complicated nests. Certainly this cannot be the case, seeing that the same types of nest as occur separately at Bordeaux and Montpellier, occur together at Naples, where the climate if not drier, is at least warmer at Mentone. I found no other type of nest at Naples, therefore it seems strange that the same ones should occur in two places so far apart, unless they be found also in intermediate locaties. I observed one or two nests of the wafer type in the grounds of Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli, but had not time to examine them. The Rev. C. P. Cambridge, in his description of N. meridionalis at the end of the supplement to "Ants and Spiders," seems to say that this species was supposed to have been found in Corsica by M. Simon, but that the only thing he observed about its nest was, that it was branched. It was described by Professor Costa as occurring near Naples and in Ischia. Is it not probable that it may construct the single door branched wafer nest just mentioned ? There is of course quite a possibility that the single door unbranched nest of Naples may turn out to be the work of some hitherto undescribed species, instead of N. Simoni, as no one appears to have noticed two types of nest in this locality. I was un- fortunately under the full impression, when in Italy, that both these Neapolitan spiders were fully de- scribed by Mr. Moggridge, but find, on referring to his work, that I was mistaken, and to my great regret, have none of the spiders preserved for identi- fication. Any observer staying at Naples could, however, easily solve these difficulties. The Nemesias, found along the Riviera, generally, if not invariably, add a thick inner door to their nests, about a third down the tube. This door differs entirely in structure from the upper door, and opens inwards instead of outwards, otherwise I should have fancied that the nest with two doors, alluded to by the Rev. J. G. Wood as in the British Museum, and which as yet I have found no opportunity of seeing, might have been one of those possessing an inner door. These inner doors are always white, thick, and hard, somewhat resembling hardened paper pulp in texture, and becoming soft when the ground is very wet. As I have already said, this door opens down- wards, and is furnished with a groove on its upper surface, to allow the spider to pass more readily when open ; and silken drapery is attached round the door, except at the hinge, in order that it should close more perfectly. (To be continued.) Natural History Society in South London. — I shall be obliged if any of your readers interested in the above, would kindly furnish me with their names and addresses as soon as possible, as I propose commencing the opening session in March or April. A meeting will shortly be held for the purpose of appointing a chairman and other officers, full par- ticulars of which I shall be happy to give on applica- tion. — Stuart Taylor, 77 Cramptou Street, Walworth. 62 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. PLANT RAMBLES IN WALES. By G. C. Druce, F.L.S. STARTING from Conway at 3 A.M. one beautiful morning in July last, which is, as Kingsley in liis "Water Babies" says, the most pleasant part of a midsummer's day, passing by Conway Castle, on waste ground we noticed Smyrnium Olusatntm, Lavatera, and Centranthus ruber ; and by the side of the embankment, Sedum dasyphyllum and anglicum ; by the railway-side, toward Deganway, were seen Spergularia marginata, Trifolium striatum and ar- vense, (Euanthe crocata, Lotus crassifolias, Glaucium lutcum, Hordeum maritimum, Triticum junceum, Juncus Gerard/, and Sclerochloa maritima. On a little hill near Deganway — a locality noticed previously in Science-Gossip by Mr. Lees — appeared the pretty Dianthus deltoides and profusion of Galium verum and Jasione motitaua ; on Deganway Craig occurred quantities of Silybum Marianum, Carduus tenuiflorus, Porago officinalis ; Jllarrubium vulgare, Lycopsis ar- vensis, and other introduced plants ; on the ivy- covered rocks looking north were Orobanche Hederce and Silene nutans; on the sandy ground towards Llandudno were seen Carex arenaria, Geranium sanguineum-prostatum, Seilla vcrna in fruit. On the Orme's Head some fine specimens of Orobanche Hederce were gathered, and after a long hunt Cotone- aster — a single plant — was found in the locality given by Mr. Lees, near it being seen Rubia pcregrina, Geranium sanguinenm, Solidago Virgaurca, Epipactis cvalis, Juniperus communis — a very prostrate variety, and Spircea Filipendula, IFclianthcmum canum, Orchis pyramidalis, Hieracium cinereum, Hyoscyamus uiger, Arabis hirsuta, Erodium maritimum, Silene nutans, Serratula tinctoria, Verbena officinalis, Lcpidium Smithii, Carduus tenuiflorus, and Marrubium vulgare. I could not find Veronica hybrida, Spiranthes autum- )ialis, or Linosyris vulgaris. The coast back to Conway yielded Convolvulus Soldanclla, great quanti- ties of Eryngium maritimum and Glaucium lutcum (see two paintings by Miss Harrison in the Institute of British Water-colours), besides Phleum armarium, Psamma arenaria, Honkeneja peploides, Glaux mari- tima, Salsola Kali, and Atriplex Babingtonii and arenaria. The picturesque ruins of Conway Castle are interesting to botanists from the vast quantities of Orobanche Hederce on the ivy, even little trans- planted stems bearing two or more parasites. A species of Dianthus, probably plumarius, was also frequent. In the Fairy Glen, near Eettws-y-Coed, we first saw the delicate Wahlenbergia hederacea — a fitting place for such a lovely flower; several Carices (CEderi, pallescens and stellulata), Orchis latij'olia, Veronica montana, and Solidago cambrica. Tandy Mill was covered with multitudes of Cotyledon Umbilicus. On the hilly road to Festiniog were seen the usual heath and moor plants. An evening's walk up to the falls near Festiniog was very enjoyable, the scenery being some of the best in North Wales. In a coppice above the Upper Fall were found Vicia Orobns and Festuca sylvatica. Among other plants noticed were IFabenaria chlorantha, Gymnadenia conop- sea, the ferns Phegopteris and Dryopteris being fre- quent. Towards the quarries Corydalis claviculata was found. The pass of Aberglaslyn was interesting both geo- logically and botanically. Sedum Forsterianum was frequent at the bottom of the valley, and on the sandy delta occurred Sagina nodosa, Agrostis pumila, Equisetum arenarium, Ornithopus perpusillus, Carex arenaria, and Isoetes Savii. On the rocky sides of the pass grew Hypericum Androsamum, round which was a colony of the gregarious Burnet moth. The Beddgelert ascent of Snowdon is very easy, but as a mist thickly enshrouded the ridge, not much botanising was done till the summit was reached, where, free from mist the heat became almost un- bearable. I soon made up my mind to have a good search for Lloydia; first climbing the ridge to Llywedd, finding Allosurus crispus, Rhodiola rosea, called by the guides the Snowdon rose, Saxifraga stellaris and hypnoides. Then returning to the summit, to the south of which a descent was made to the lake, which entailed some good crag climbing, I noticed Poa alpina, Carex rigida, Saxifraga oppositifolia in flower, Alsine vema, Thalictrum minus-montanum, alpinum rarely in flower, Silene acaulis, Asplenium viride, Cystopteris fragilis and Lycopodium alpinum, but no Lloydia. Returning to the summit by the Pen-y- Gwryd the ascent was too barren and exposed for plants, but the view was very fine and extensive, Cader Idris and Plinlimmon being seen. In Llanberis lakes Lsoetes lacustris, Alisma ranunculoides, Liitorella lacustris, and Lobelia Dortmanna were found. A visit to Aberfraw Common and Llyn Coron resulted in the finding of Prunella vulgaris, v&r.a/ba, Alentha rotundifolia, Lepidium campestre, Helosciadium repens ; it was quite necessary to have a swim in the lake, where a long search was at length rewarded by gathering Elatiue hexandra and Llydropiper, both nearly crowded out by Chara, Potamogeton crispus, Ranunculus fiuitans, var. Bachii, and Myriophyllum spicatum, the borders of the lake yielding Alisma ranunculoides, var. repens, Peplis Portula, and Montia fontana. On the sandy common Viola Curtisii was very abundant, growing round the strange little bunches of furze, and here and there Erythrcra pul- chella, Carex ampullacca, Festuca uniglumis, arenaria, Erodium maritimum, and a dried-up specimen of LCuappia agrostidea. Returning to Nant Francon, where Saxifraga stellaris grows by the roadside, washed clown from the Carnedd, and passing by some white foxglove and thyme, a climb was made up to Llyn Idwal, where, by the quiet, dark lake, some good botanising HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 63 was enjoyed. Subularia aquatica in flower, Isoetes lacustris, Sparganium affine, CcUliiriche autr/m/ialis, and IAttorella lacustris were gathered in the lake, and on its borders Comarum pahtstre, Carex pulicaris, dioica, alpicola (vililis) . An old watercourse whose precipitous course made a good climb, was rich in plants, Phegop- teris, Dryopteris, A. viride, Cystopteris fragilis, crispa, being frequent till, at higher elevations, some half- slaty ledges were covered with Rhodiola rosea, Poa alpina, Silene acaulis, Saxifraga elongella, stellaris, oppositifolia ; specimens also being found of Aspidium Lonchitis, Alsineverna, Botrychium Lunaria, and the so-called Poly gala grandiflora. The rocks at Twll Du were quite a garden from the number of Hieracia, Rhodiola, and other plants, but Lloydia was not seen. Meconopsis canibrica still occurred in its old locality. Besides finding Hymenophyllum Wilson i at the Swallow Falls, and Lactuca muralis at Bettws and Aber, but little else was done ; but certainly Wales is well worth working, as it is easily accessible and very interesting. MICROSCOPY. Mounting Micro-Fungi. — Since I wrote my paper on this subject in January, 1879, to which Mr. George Clinch very kindly refers in this month's (February) Science-Gossip, I have tried the method of mounting on wooden slips, having been advised to do so by a gentleman whose method of mounting these interesting specimens is simply superb. In most cases I find the plan answered very well, though I do not think the slides present so nice an appear- ance in the cabinet. Of course there are cases in which the perfectly opaque method does not answer, for instance, in mounting specimens of such a fungus as Peridermium Pint, where it is necessary that the structure should be examined both by opaque and transmitted light. I may mention that prepared wooden slips may be bought for a small sum, but I regret that I have not the name of the optician by me who supplied those I have ; doubtless, however, there are many who keep them in stock, and I think it is far better and saves time to buy than to make your- self.— Charles F. W. T. Williams, St. Johji's College, Cambridge. Microscopical Society of Liverpool. — The eleventh annual meeting of this Society was held at the Royal Institution, on Friday evening, January 16, 1880 ; Rev. W. H. Dallinger in the chair. The presi- dent elect, Dr. J. Sibley Hicks delivered his Inaugural Address, choosing for his subject the Embryology of the Lower Vertebrates, with special reference to the development of the chick. He pointed out the striking similarity which exists in the early stages of development in all animals. After describing some of the most important features in the early stages of development in the chick, up to a period when it could be prepared in its entirety as a transparent object for microscopic examination, he proceeded to describe the evolution of the heart, comparing the various forms that organ assumes during its gradual development in the embryonic condition, to the adult heart of animals of a lower order, commencing with the dorsal vessel of the insect and gradually ascending to the incomplete four-chambered heart of the reptile. The address was illustrated by means of skilfully- prepared diagrams. Rock Sections. — At a late meeting of the San Francisco Microscopical Society, a paper by Mr. Melville Atwood was read, entitled "The Import- ance of a Classification of Metalliferous Veins." The paper, after dwelling at some length on the various means, &c, of determining the value of a lode, the uncertainty which attends it, and consequent risk to the miner, dealt as follows with a section of Mine- ralogy which may be interesting to some of our readers, namely, the cutting of rock-sections for microscopical examination. Mr. Atwood says, " after many experiments, I found a simple plan by which rock-section cutting can be done at little cost and labour, by the use of a few emery stones, or blocks, of different degrees of fineness — say, from one and a half to two inches square, and eight or nine inches long — the same as I have brought here for your in- spection. The chips to be cut should be first made as thin as possible ; the plan recommended by Mr. Rutley, to use a cold-chisel, the end let into a block of wood, and then by holding the specimen on the edge of the chisel and striking it a sharp blow with a light hammer, will generally give you a satisfactory chip. The chip must then be rubbed on the emery blocks, with water, till you get a good, even surface on one side of it, commencing with the coarse emery blocks first ; then, with Canada balsam, fasten the smooth surface of the chip to a common glass slide, which is done by heating the slide over a spirit lamp and then applying a small quantity of the balsam. As soon as the balsam liquifies, press the smooth surface of the chip into it, and then allow it to cool. The balsam is better to be dried, so that you can use it like a stick of sealing-wax. As soon as the slide and chip are cold, you can commence to rub the outer, or rough surface of the chip attached to the slide, on the emery blocks until you get it nearly thin enough for mounting. To finish, use the fine, smaller blocks, as you would a file. Vou can hold the section up to the light and examine it during the operation. Mount and cover the section with thin glass, in the usual way." Pond Life. — We have received from Mr. C. Baker, 244 High Holborn, a large mounted photo- graph, containing groups of British microscopic animals and plants, collected from a pond at Leyton- stone, near London, and drawn from life by Mr. 6 4 HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. H. C. Richter. The photograph contains no fewer than thirty-five different objects, and as there is a key accompanying the photograph which gives their names, the illustrations have great value to the student. For exquisiteness of finish and natural history accuracy, we have never before seen anything to equal this photograph, and our surprise is none the less great that it should be mounted and sold for 3j. 6d. ZOOLOGY. Climbing Powers of the Common Toad. — The late Mr. Coldwells, gardener, of Sandford Lane, Stoke Newington, several times assured me that he had seen toads climb the dwarf brick walls that inclose many of the gardens in the newer districts of the parish. He once took me into a garden and pointed out a toad he had seen enter by way of the wall, and he added, " I was always puzzled when I found a toad in one of these gardens until at last the mystery was explained by my observation of their capacity for climbing." I have never seen a toad climb a perpendicular surface, but I have seen them get up slippery sloping surfaces. — Shirley Hibbcrd, Stoke Newington, Ovarium of Freshwater Sponge. — Since the publication of my paper with sketches "On the Freshwater Sponge " in Science-Gossip, my atten- tion has been drawn to an excellent drawing of the egg of the sponge in " Science for All," vol. i., page 6l, fig. 8 a, named there, " the winter bud or gemmule of Spongilla, in its natural condition." At b, is represented one as the same prepared with nitric acid to show its spicular coat. This is incorrect, the fig. at a is an ovarium of Spongilla fluviatilis, but at b is a skeleton of an ovarium of S. Inci/stris, prepared with nitric acid, showing the spicula. In my next paper on the Spongilla to Science-Gossip I shall send some sketches of the spicula peculiar to the ovaria of Spongilla jliiviatilis. — J. Fitllagar. The Bustard {Otis tarda) was shot at Salisbury last January ; it was a female, and weighed about nine lbs. — F. S. Lyddon. The Introduced Birds and Mammals of New Zealand. — A paper on the above subject was read by Mr. H. M. Brewer, before the Linnean Society, who referred to Dr. Butler's "Avifauna of New Zealand," as not written too soon, for the rapid disappearance of many highly interesting forms is to be deplored. Finches and other small birds intro- duced are preyed on by the New Zealand owl, but nevertheless quite a long list of British songsters, game birds, and others have been successfully esta- blished. Pheasants in some districts abound, and it is observed that when the tremor of an earthquake occurs, the cock pheasants set up a continuous crow, either of defiance or fear. Partridges thrive best on the south island. Red deer are now seen in herds on the hills near Nelson. Hares have increased too rapidly, and the female in New Zealand has become more prolific, giving birth to six or seven young at a time. Kangaroos, and various other mammals, have likewise been imported ; but, unfortunately, facts mentioned point out that the acclimatisation of some of them is not altogether an unmitigated blessing to the farmer colonist. A New British Fish. — A paper was read on this subject at a recent meeting of the Zoological Society, by Dr. A. Giinther, F.R.S., who exhibited and made remarks on a drawing of a West Indian fish {Hola- canthns tricolor), obtained on the coast of the Island of Lewis, and believed to have been found for the first time in British seas. Effect of Frost on some Freshwater Molluscs. — On January 19, the Ouse, at York, was considerably lowered by opening Naburn Lock, and a very large number of freshwater shells were con- sequently left exposed on the banks. A hard frost set in the same night (my thermometer registered eight degrees of frost), and continued till the lock was closed. The mud banks became perfectly hard to the water's edge, and it was very interesting to observe the behaviour of the various species of molluscs under their novel situation. L. pcregra burrowed itself a hole in the mud, apparently by a rotatory movement of the shell, and lay there, warm and damp. I opened several of these holes, mistaking them for burrows of Sphaerium. I don't think a specimen of it died. Sphmrium ovale, which lives in deep burrows, and when the water is lowered in the summer, sinks into them to maintain its moisture, behaved in a very singular manner. It left its hole and lay dead on the surface in numbers — very convenient for my collection, but I fear the species will become almost extinct, as it is confined to a very limited locality. Anodonta and Unio had evidently made a struggle to follow the water as it retreated, but failed. A hard frozen track, a few inches long, marked their efforts. They were all, I believe, dead. Palndina vivipara (which occurs in great abundance), was unable to resist the frost in spite of its operculum and thick mud coat. All the specimens I examined were dead. Some had made a futile effort to bury themselves, but as they live in a stony part of the river, they had not a fair chance. As no Sphcerium rivicola appeared, and it is generally abundant, I infer it remained in its burrow. How far the following inferences may be justified, I leave to your readers to judge. 1. That L. pcrcgra has learnt, by a kind of hereditary instinct, how to behave under frost. How determined nature is to preserve and multiply this species! 2. That S. ovale is used to exposure in hot weather from drought, but is not used to the unnatural circumstances HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 65 of rivers drying up in winter. 3. That Unio and Anodonta can save themselves under ordinary circum- stances of falling water, but that the sudden fall of the Ouse was too much for them. 4. That Paludina vivipara lives too deep to be accustomed to a tempera- ture below thirty-two degrees. — Rev. IV. C. Hey. Carnivorous Bees. — Mr. Packard, jun., writing in the "American Naturalist," says that an ascle- piadaceous plant was brought to him last September, with several moths hanging dead from the flowers, having been caught by their tongues in one of the opposing edges of the horny contrivances covering the pollinia. A short time afterwards a correspondent sent an account to Mr. Packard about some moths being entrapped in a similar maimer, and around which, as they endeavoured to get away, several bees were buzzing, constantly attacking them with their stings. After they became apparently lifeless, the bees settled on them and began to devour them. The same correspondent had previously noticed the tongues of some moths entrapped in the pollinia, whose bodies had disappeared. The fact was com- municated to Dr. Darwin, who wrote that he had never heard of carnivorous bees, but he suggested it was possible that the bees opened the bodies for the sake of the honey. Bulwer's Petrel. — There was a mistake in the identification of the specimen thought to be this very rare bird, to which reference was made in our January number. It turns out to be the black variety of the Pomatorhine Skua. BOTANY. The "Tourist's Flora."— I am happy to see that J. A. Coventry has the courage to say a word in behalf of the Linnean system ; agreeing, as I do, with Mr. Woods, that it is "almost impossible for a student to determine a plant by the natural orders." Thirty years ago, when I commenced the study of botany, the Linnean system gave me all the aid I needed. It is to be regretted that "The Student's Flora" is not supplemented by a clavis analytica ; a separate publication of it, in which the references were given to the natural order, would be gladly possessed by those in whose floras the key to them is omitted.— T. B. W., Brighton. Phyllotaxis.— We are sorry that, owing to a printer's error, the blocks of figs. 16 and 17, illus- trating the article on this subject, were transposed ; 16 is that of the ash, and 17 is that of the horse- chestnut. Popular Names of Plants and Animals. — Mr. James Britten, F.L.S., of the botanical depart- ment, British Museum, writes to us as follows : I am preparing for the English Dialect Society a dictionary of the popular names of mammals, insects, reptiles, and Crustacea, which will, indeed, include all zoological names, except those of fishes and birds, which are in the hands of Mr. T. Satchell and the Rev. C. Swainson respectively. I shall be very glad of help from the readers of Science-Gossip. The " Fagus " of the Latins.— In the January number of your very interesting Science-Gossip, is an able article on the "Fagus of the Latins," with which I cannot altogether agree. If we take Virgil for instance, in the line at the commencement of Eel. I. " Tityre tu patulae recubans sub tegmine fagi," he speaks of the fagus as wide-spreading ; a term which could not be applied to Quercus ilex, nor indeed to any of the evergreen oaks, so appropriately as to the beech, of which it is truly characteristic. Again, in Geor. i. 173, " Altaque fagus," the term lofty is applied to that tree, and is certainly much more appropriate to the aspiring as well as wide- spreading beech, than to the round-headed evergreen oak. My son informs me that " Billerbeck, in Flora Classica, considers the Greek pkegos to be Quercus Esculus ; but he makes fagus to be a different tree, namely, Fagus sylvaticus, our beech." — M. Mogp-idge. Bees v. Kalmia latifolia. — The Editor of the " Bee-Keeper" answers the query which appeared in Science-Gossip, in his own journal as follows : — " From ' A General System of Botany,' by Le Maout and Decaisne, we learn that the genera (of Ericaceae or Ericineae), Rhododendron, Ledum, Kalmia, and Azalea are narcotic ; the honey extracted from their flowers is extremely poisonous. Lindley (' Vegetable Kingdom ') tells us the same thing, adding that the whole species of the Ericaceae (or Heathwort) tribe is narcotic, and that the leaves are deleterious to the goats, cattle, and sheep which feed upon them. Some writers affirm, however, that the different genera of the Ericaceae are merely astringent, not poisonous. Loudon (' Encyclopaedia of Trees and Shrubs ') says that the leaves of Kalmia latifolia are poisonous to cattle and sheep, but not to deer. The ' Nouveau Dictionnaire Classique d'Histoire Na- turelle' (1845) observes that the leaves are poisonous to horses, kine, and birds, but not to goats or deer. It has been said that the common evergreen shrub Rhododendron ponticum, another species of Ericaceae and closely allied to the Kalmia, was the plant from flowers of which the bees of Pontus collected the honey that produced the extraordinary symptoms of poisoning described as having attacked the Greek soldiers in the famous retreat of the 10,000. Xenophon says that after eating it the men fell stupefied in all directions, so that the camp looked like a battle-field covered with corpses. But the Russian traveller, Pallas, is of opinion that Azalea pontica (again a species of Ericaceae) was the real cause of the mis- chief. Kalmia latifolia, or mountain laurel, is a native of North America, and was introduced into England in 1734. 66 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. GEOLOGY. Correlation of the Drift-deposits. — Mr. D. Mackintosh, F.G.S., has just contributed a paper on this subject to the Geological Society. The object of the author was to present the subject in a concise form so as to stimulate to further research. His scheme of correlation was founded on the horizontal continuity of the deposits and their included erratics. He gave an account of his discovery of the continuous extension of the upper Boulder-clay of Cheshire, above a great thickness of sand and gravel, as far as Berrington, south of Shrewsbury, and its appearance at intervals along the Severn valley to below Worcester, where it was probably represented by a bed with Malvern-hill boulders above shelly sand and gravel. He traced the great boulder- bearing clay and gravel around Wolverhampton eastward through central England, to where it graduated into the chalky clay of Lincolnshire ; and laid great stress on the commingling, at Wolver- hampton, in this deposit, of erratics (chiefly granite and felstone) from the north with erratics (chiefly chalk-flints and gryphites) from the east. He described the clay and sand around Gainsborough, Retford, &c. He correlated the "carrion," or lower Boulder-clay of the Vale of York (containing Carboniferous, Jurassic, and granitic erratics), with the lower yellowish-brown clay of the Aire and Wharfe valleys and the plain of Craven. He likewise correlated patches of upper clay in the latter areas with the upper Boulder-clay of the Lancashire plain, but was not certain that they were of Hessle age. The solution of the main question depended chiefly on the relative age of the Wolverhampton and Stafford clay-and-gravel, which he was disposed to regard as the equivalent of the lower brown Boulder-clay of the north-west and likewise of the chalky clay of Lincolnshire. The Portland Rocks of England. — At a recent meeting of the Geological Society, a paper on this subject was read by the Rev. J. F. Blake, M.A., F.G.S. The author gave a general account of the relation of the several Portland rocks in the areas of their development to each other, and hence deduced the history of the Portland " episode." The name is used on the continent in a wider sense than in England, and this use was shown to be unjustifiable. After giving an account of his observations on the rocks at Portland itself, and dividing the limestones into the building-stone and flinty series, the author showed that the so-called "Upper Portlandian" of Boulogne corresponds to the latter, and the upper part of the "Middle Portlandian" to the Portland sand. He then endeavoured to prove by the propor- tionate thickness, the indications of change in the lithology, and the distribution of some of the fossils, that the rest of the so-called " Middle " and the "Lower Portlandian" are represented by integral portions of the Upper Kimmeridge, which are thus the "normal" form corresponding to what the author calls the " Boulognian episode." The series in the vale of Wardour has been made out pretty completely. The Purbeck is separated by a band of clay from the Portland and is not amalgamated with it. The building-stones, and flinty series are here seen again ; and a fine freestone occurs at the base of the latter. The representatives of the Portland sand were considered to be older than those of other districts. The relations of the Purbeck to the Portland rocks at Swindon were very carefully traced ; and it is shown that, while the upper beds of the latter put on here some peculiar characters, the former lie on their worn edges. The upper beds of the Portland, which have been referred to the sand, correspond to the freestone and the base of the flinty series of the Vale of War- dour ; hence the Purbecks of Swindon may be coeval with the upper beds of the Portland to the south. At the base of the great quarry and elsewhere in the neighbourhood are the " Trigonia-beds," beneath which is clay, hitherto mistaken for the Kimmeridge Clay ; and beneath this are the true Portland sands, with an abundant fauna new to England. The lime- stones of Oxfordshire and Bucks were considered to represent the "Trigonia-beds" only; and, as the Purbecks here lie for the most part conformably, it was suggested that they wore formed in a lake at an earlier period than those at Swindon, which are of a more fluviatile character. Hence the Portland episode considered as marine, was at an end in the north before it was half completed in the south. Cave-hunting.— Messrs. James and W. E. Back- house, by whom the interesting " Teesdale Cave" was discovered in 1878, obtained during the last season the bones of twenty-two vertebrate animals, including a species of the cat tribe. Mr. W. Davies of the British Museum, thinks it to be the lynx. We believe that lynx bones have been found in a Derbyshire cave. The Volcanic Rocks of Dartmoor. — At a recent meeting of the Geological Society, a paper was read on this subject by Mr. Frank Rutley, F.G.S. Among the ashy beds of this district are certain amygdaloidal schistose rocks, which the author is of opinion are really lava-flows, which have probably been crushed or infiltrated, and have so assumed a foliated structure owing to pressure from superin- cumbent beds acting on rocks thus constituted. They are much altered, but were probably once basalts. The author considered it very probable that these schistose beds and Brent Tor, considered to be of Carboniferous age, are identical with beds near Tavis- tock and in the Saltash district, which are of Upper Devonian age. In the concluding part of the paper the author described the beds of alternating ashes and HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 67 lava, now much disturbed by faults, which constitute all that remains of the ancient Brent-Tor Volcano, and endeavoured, from the evidence which can be thus obtained, to give a probable reconstruction of the former cone. Geologists' Association. — We have received No. 4, vol. vi. of the proceedings of this association, containing, amongst other matter, the following articles. " On the Insect Fauna of the Palaeozoic Period, and the British and Foreign Formations of that Period in which Insect Remains have been Detected," by Herbert Goss, F.L.S.. &c. ; " On the Fossil Corals obtained from the Oolite of the Railway Cuttings near Hook Norton, Oxfordshire," by Robert F. Tomes, F.G.S. ; " Note on the Rev. J. F. Blake's paper on the Chalk of Yorkshire," by Dr. Charles Barrois ; " Reply to note on the Rev. J. F. Blake's paper on the Chalk of Yorkshire," by the Rev. J. F. Blake, M.A., F.G.S. ; "On the Dinosauria," by Professor H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., F.G.S. Fossil Fungi from the Lower Coal Mea- sures. — Two papers have been read on this subject before the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society by William Cash, F.G.S., and Thomas Hick, B.Sc. (Lond.) In a previous communication made to the society by these gentlemen, a list of plants which had been discovered in the Lower Coal Measures near Halifax was given. At that time only one species of fossil fungus had been discovered, since then, however, Mr. Binn has brought to light addi- tional examples of fungoid growth. The specimens, taken from some nodules, were exhibited in three microscopic slides. The first is a transverse section of the petiole of a fern, and a similar section of a branchlet or rootlet of some other plant. The fern {Zygoplcris Lacatii) evidently lay exposed for some time to the atmosphere before fossilisation set in and during that period it was attacked by the fungi. The vegetative part of the fungus consists of a large number of very delicate hyphae, not more than ^ W) inch in diameter, which are frequently branched. In one respect the hyphae differ from those of most fungi in exhibiting at different points what appear to be a number of closely approximated constructions, which give the filaments at these points a moniliform char- acter, possibly the constructions may be transverse septa. The reproductive organs are unfortunately neither abundant nor well-defined, indeed the only structures to which reproductive functions can be assigned are minute spherical bodies, apparently produced at the extremities of the hyphae, or their branches. They are probably oospores. The fungi, from various characteristics, probably belong to the suborder Peronosporae. The second slide exhibits a section cut parallel to the first, from the same species of material, and is nearly identical with it. The slide is confirmatory of the results obtained from the first, but it does not contain a greater number of the supposed oospores. The third slide is entirely different, having been cut from material obtained from a different pit. It consists of small and disconnected fragments of vegetable tissue, most probably the broken debris of several plants. In and between these fragments are immense numbers of small round bodies, the spores of some fungus ; but no trace of mycelium or any filamentous structure has been dis- ; covered. In this peculiarity they very much resemble the Myxomycetes. It is just possible that the fossil spores may be of a myxomycetous nature, seeing that they occur in and among tissues that are partially decayed, and in so far resemble the conditions that favour the development of existing forms. The size and appearance of the fossil forms also agrees almost exactly with that of existing specimens. NOTES AND QUERIES. Climbing-irons. — Can any of the readers of Science-Gossip give their experience about the use of climbing-irons 1 Where are the best irons to be had, and are they really of service in ascending trees '! —Beta. Acclimatised Parakeets.— Some years ago, I recollect reading that a pair of the Australian undulated grass parakeets, commonly called budgerigars, had bred in a tree in Lincoln's Inn Fields, and reared young ones, which, together with their parents, were, the writer asserted, to be seen daily disputing with the sparrows for the crumbs thrown to them by the residents, and the oats that fell about the cab-stand. What became of these birds I have never heard ; but having kept budgerigars for some years and bred them, in a cold room, at all seasons of the year, I think there would not be the least difficulty in accli- matising them. If some gentleman in the country would turn a couple of hundred of them into a wood in the spring of the year, I have no doubt they would soon make themselves at home, and as they are very harmless pretty little birds, would soon become general favourites. — W. T. Greene. Acclimatised Canaries. — It maybe interesting to some of your readers to know that canaries are not such delicate birds as it is often supposed. True, many die from catching cold ; cages are hung up in a room, and when the little songsters are exposed to draughts from the door or window they die, and are thought to be very tender. Well, mine have been out of doors all this winter, exposed as they were to a frost which on two or three occasions has registered from 12 to 20 decrees below zero. The aviary is about 9 feet high, 12 feet long, and 6 feet wide, covered with a zinc roof, and has a wall on the north, east, and west sides ; the front facing the south has no protection whatever during the most intense frost, except a quarter inch wire netting. Night and day, sunshine and shade, some have been there year after year, and never yet have I found that cold or frost has been the destruction of one. Some young and some old, it makes no difference as far as the thermometer is concerned, they roost on the dried stumps or branches inside, and never sing more sweetly than during the winter snowstorms. Like children, they seem to derive amusement from the 68 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. falling snow. The birds like eating snow too. When the frost is so severe that the water freezes almost as soon as given to them, which has been the case this winter, I take care to shovel some snow into the cage, and so long as they have snow to pick, or water to drink, they do not mind the cold. They enjoy a cold bath, however, as long as the frost does not prevent them having a dip, which, by adding a little water only on the top of the ice, they were long able to do, till at last, the ice in the pan was one frozen mass and they had to satisfy themselves with the snow. Turn your canaries out of doors in the warm air of July or August, and as the cold of winter comes on gradually they will month by month get accustomed to it. My experience for years has proved if they are pro- tected from a draught or current of air through the aviary, you may fearlessly expose them to any amount of cold such as can get to them from a southerly aspect, protected (only to prevent them flying away) by a wire netting. — IF. Bud Jen, Ipswich. Phosphorescence of Shore Sand. — The phos- phorescence (so called) spoken of by Mr. J . G. T. Lee, as occurring on the sands at Whitby, was doubtless caused by Noctiluca miliaris, stranded by the receding tide. I have frequently observed the same effect, and by microscopic examination have ascertained the cause. These little creatures only "shew their tiny spark to the traveller in the dark," when irritated in any way ; but the effect, if not visible by daylight, can be felt at any time. Last summer, I experienced a very unpleasant sensation, similar to that caused by a galvanic battery, on putting my hand into a dense mass of them floating in the sea. Subsequent experi- ments with a large quantity at home, proved that the flash is always accompanied by the "shock," and that after two discharges have taken place — the second one much feebler than the first — a rest of ten or fifteen minutes must be allowed before the phenomena can be repeated. Am I right in thinking that the shock with the coincident flash, is intended as a means of self-defence ?— /P; //. Shrubsole, F.G.S. Steering-power of Sea-birds. — Among other interesting notes made during a passage to Australia and New Zealand, one relates to the flight of sea- birds, and as I have not noticed it elsewhere, I think it may be worthy of a place in Science-Gossip. It is, I fancy, generally believed that the sole steering- power of birds lay in their tails, and this perhaps may be true so far as land-birds are concerned, but several observations I made lead one to think that sea-birds possess a more or less powerful auxiliary to the tail, and which is to be found in their feet. Shortly after leaving Plymouth, during a fresh breeze, several gulls flew close to and around the ship, and I noticed that when turning sharply, or making a curve in their flight, they lowered their feet from the ordinary position taken when in a direct course and made a kind of paddling motion, the toes being out- stretched so as to form a kind of fan with the web. As this was the first time I had noticed anything of the kind, I determined to make a point of observing the flight of the various kinds of birds we might meet with during the remainder of the passage. Until we reached Madeira no case presented itself, as birds became rare, in fact only two or three petrels were seen, and these too far off to be observed with any certainty. When off the above island several gulls and terns came round us, when exactly the same motions were seen. No other chance then presented itself until we had passed the equator, the southern tropic, and entered the colder climate of the southern seas, where, as is well known to those who have had the fortune (or misfortune !) to sail, birds collect and follow in the ship's wake by hundreds, and continue without ceasing until the antipodes are reached. They fly without the slightest sign of fear almost within reach of the outstretched hand, affording ex- cellent opportunities for being closely observed. Without exception, each time they made a curve or angle, the feet were lowered and the same paddling motion gone through, but immediately it was com- pleted, they were re-collected to the former position. As this occurred with all the birds which flew around, from the gigantic albatros down to the tiny petrel, one may, 1 think, infer with tolerable certainty that sea-birds derive considerable aid from their feet as a steering-power, and especially when crossing adverse currents of wind. — IF. M. Cole, F.G.S. The "Long-purpi.es" of Shakspeare. — The plants alluded to by the queen in Hamlet, act iv. scene 7, by this name, are most probably the riverside growth of Orchis mascitla. She observes that to these "long purples" " Liberal shepherds give a grosser name, But our cold maids do dead men's lingers call them." What the "grosser name" of the "liberal shepherds" was, may be seen on reference to the description of Orchis viasaila in any of the olden herbals, and in " Withering's Botany" (1776); while the name of " Dead-men's-fingers " is still applied to this plant by rustics hereabouts. — R. A., Wellington, Shrop- shire. The "Long-purples" of Shakspeare. — There can be no doubt that Orchis masada is the plant Shak- speare alludes to under the above name, in Hamlet, act iv. scene 7- From the above reference we learn that the same plant was designated by three names, and we also learn that it was not Lythrum Salicaria any more than it was Digitalis purpurea. They are both long and purple ; but that certainly does not make them the plant of the poet. On the other hand the Orchis is still (in some parts of Scotland and the north of England) called " long-purples," and as any one may observe, the tubers bear some resemblance to " Dead-men's-fingers." If I mistake not, Lightfoot was the first botanist who pointed out that the Orchis was, beyond all question, the "long purples" of our great poet. — A. Craig- Christie. The " Long-purples " of Shakspeare. — There can be little doubt that Shakspeare referred to the common species of orchis, such as mascula and morio, under the name of " Long-purples," or " Dead-men's- fingers." The two names are not obviously appro- priate to any other common plant, and most popular names are obviously appropriate. Arum maculatum has a better claim by far than lythrum, though the two names would only fit two different varieties. As our greatest authority on the subject, the Rev. H. N. Ellacomb, points out in his "Plant-lore of Shak- speare," the name "Dead-men's-fingers" was given from the pale palmate roots of O. maculata, latijblia, and allied species. — G. S. Boulger. " Long-purples." — I remember reading, but I do not remember where, that the plant alluded to by Shakspeare as "long purples" was really the cuckoo-pint (Arum maat latum), the spadix of which is purple in hue. — Helen E. Watney. The "Long-purples" of Shakspeare (No. 182, p. 45). — Shakspeare's own words, I think, afford the best proof that the plant he intended was Orchis mascula, L., the early purple orchis. It is not necessary to specify the "grosser names" by HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 69 which shepherds of Shakspeare's day and the country people of the present day have called and still call the orchis. However, the synonym " Dead-men's- fingers " settles the question : Dead-men's-fingers, Dead-menVhands, and Dead-men's-thumbs being still in use in various counties. These names are also applied to several other orchises, and no doubt the pale palmate roots of two of the species have given rise to the name. Orchis mascula, it is true, has not palmate roots, but little heed was formerly paid to minute distinctions, and its long purple spikes are more conspicuous than those of other species, so it would receive the name. Orchis mascula is called Dead-men's-fingers in Sussex. It is called Dead- men's-hands in Gloucestershire, Hampshire, Sussex, Warwickshire, and the Border Country ; and it is called Dead-man's-thumb by Gerard, and still in the Border Country it receives the name. Orchis Alorio, L., is called Dead-men's-fingers in Sussex, and Orchis metadata, L., and O. latifolia, L., are called Dead-men's-fingers in the Border Country. It is clear that Shakspeare alluded to some kind of orchis, and the adjective "long," applied to the purple spikes, points pretty conclusively to the species. Lythrum Salicaria, L., however, though certainly not Shakspeare's "long purples," is known by that name in Northamptonshire {sec Sternberg's " North- amptonshire Glossary "), and it is, doubtless, the plant of Clare's "Village Minstrel," ii. p. 90: — "Gay long-purp'es with its tufty spike ; She'd wade o'er shoes to reach it in the dyke." I am unable to identify Tennyson's "long-purples of the dale."— Robert Holland. The "Long-purples" of Shakspeare.— In my opinion the " long-purples" of Shakspeare is the Arum maculatum, in proof of which in Hamlet, where the queen, informing Laertes of the death of her sister says : " There is a willow grows ascaunt the brook, That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream ; Therewith fantastick garlands did she make Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies and long-purples, That liberal shepherds," &c. — J as. Thompson, Tint wis tie. South London Microscopical and Natural History Club. — In the January number of Science- Gossip is a paragraph, signed Stuart Taylor, asking for assistance in starting a club in South London for the study of natural history. As the South London Microscopical and Natural History Club has been in existence for nearly ten years, I shall be obliged by your calling the attention of your readers to it in your next number, as it fully answers all the purposes your correspondent wishes for. — Edward Dadswell, Hon. Sec, S. L. M. &> N. H Club. Water-Cresses. — In answer to R. B. B.'s inquiry on the subject of the common water-cresses (Has- turtium officinale) formerly Sisymbrium Nasturtium, Science-Gossip, page 44. In the "Treasury of Botany" it states, "As a spring salad, the young shoots and leaves of water-cresses have been used from time immemorial. They are stated to have been eaten by the ancients along with lettuces, to counteract the coldness of the latter by their warmth and stimulating qualities ; and at the present day they are to be found on almost every table, the popular belief being that, when eaten fasting, they possess the property of exciting the appetite, and acting as a powerful anti-scorbutic. The first attempt to cultivate water-cresses by artificial means in Europe, was made by Nicolas Meissner, at Erfurt, the capital of Upper Thuringia, about the middle of the six- teenth century. The experiment proved successful, and the water-cresses of Erfurt soon acquired that celebrity for their superior quality which they still maintain ; most of the cities on the Rhine, as well as the markets of Berlin 120 miles off, being constantly supplied with them. In the neighbourhood of London, the mode of cultivating water-cresses was first introduced by Mr. Bradbury at Northfleet, Springhead, near Gravesend, particularly in localities favourably situated with regard to springs of water. Near Rickmansworth in Hertfordshire, Waltham Abbey in Essex, Uxbridge in Middlesex, and various other places, there are plantations many acres in extent, which are scarcely sufficient to supply the great demand for this popular salad herb during the season." Dr. M. J. Thornton, in his " Family Herbal " (2nd edition, published 1814), quoting from the author of the " Edinburgh New Dispensary," says : " Water-cresses act as a gentle stimulant and diuretic. They should be eaten at breakfast, also at dinner, and at supper, to experience benefit from the virtues of this herb." Haller says: "We have seen patients in deep declines cured by living almost entirely on this plant." It is. reported, the same author adds, "that the juice of the water-cresses snuffed up the nostrils has cured a polypus of the nose. It enters into composition esteemed famous for curing the scurvy. Withering speaks of the water-cress as being universally used, as an early and wholesome spring salad. It is an excellent anti- scorbutic and stomachic, with less acrimony than the scurvy grass. In the fourteenth volume of Science- Gossip (page 42), there is an interesting note upon the water-cress also at page 45, there is a reference made to Mr. Shirley Hibberd's artificial growing of the water-cress ; in the winter ; for which the Royal Horticultural Society awarded him a medal. The creeping water-parsnip [Stum noctiflorum), is men- tioned in Professor Martyn's " Letters on Botany," addressed to a young lady, as sometimes being mistaken for the water-cress, as when both are young, they are not unlike, and they frequently grow together, but the leaves are very different, and not often mistaken. — E. Edwards. Water-Cresses. — In reply to R. B. B. — Water- cresses have been used as salad from very early times up to the present with the reputation of pos- sessing numerous medicinal virtues, but chiefly diuretic and anti-scorbutic. Dioscorides said that they warm, and are diuretic eaten raw, and that they cleanse the face of spots and sores, applied at night and taken off in the morning. Matthiolus, in his " Commentary on Dioscorides," mentions other sup- posed virtues ; and such like are to be found in the other herbals of the sixteenth and seventeenth centu- ries. They are not, however, worth repetition. Water- cresses were retained in the "Materia Medica" until the end of the eighteenth century. Under the genus Sisymbrium, Linnseus mentions " Nasturtii aqua- tici. Qual. : minus cochlearia acris. Vis : diuretica. Usus : scorbutus, obstipatio, polypus. Mat. Med. 1749." Dr. Woodville wrote : " Water-cresses obtain a place in the ' Materia Medica ' for their anti-scor- butic qualities, which have been long very generally acknowledged by physicians. They are also sup- posed to purify the blood and humours, and to open visceral obstructions. Hoffman and Haller thought highly of their powers in this way : they are nearly allied to scurvy-grass, but are more mild and pleasant, and for this reason are frequently eaten as salad." Med. Bot. 1790. Water-cresses are not now included in the Materia Medica ; and even Lindley in his 7o HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. " Flora Medica" (1S3S) omits them, though he gives a very extended list of medical plants. The last account I have seen of the dietetic properties of water-cresses is by Mrs. Lankester, in the third edition of " Sowerby's English Botany " (1863), who says " that the fresh green leaves are a good anti- scorbutic."—^. //. A. Can new Species originate by crossing ? — An answer to E. A. Brunetti's letter would involve an exact definition of the terms genus, species, race, variety, which would, in effect, reopen the discussion which you terminated at the close of last year ; and I would not again have addressed you on the subject, but that the evolutionists may assume that if Mr. Brunetti's letter be unanswered, it is because it is un- answerable. I quite agree with your answer to P. and others in the current number, that there seems no more likelihood of the opponents satisfying each other than of two parallel lines meeting. As the promoter of the discussion on "Intelligence in Man and Animals," allow me, however, to express a hope that it will not be fruitless, as many of the moot points of the subject have been fairly ventilated. — H. D. Barclay. Misconceptions of Darwinism. — Though the views enunciated by Mr. Darwin are rapidly gaining adherents, these last are so much more remarkable for valour than for discretion, that the learned naturalist might well cry, "save me from my friends." Your February number contains several very un-Darwinian statements on Darwinian topics, which I take in order, using the word Darwinian to express that particular view of evolution, in which natural selection is con- sidered a most important mode of change. Not only admitting, but being ready to maintain, that "The Origin of Species " is the greatest scientific work of the day by reason of its method, its array of facts, and its universal influence, I submit that it is an absurd misuse of terms, to call it a cyclopedia of science. At the most it only professes to deal with biology. It is equally absurd to say that Mr. Darwin has in any degree reduced variation to a law or even to a code. No one would be more ready to deny having clone so than the great author himself, Indeed, if my memory mislead me not, he clearly says that of the causes of variation we know next to nothing, and that they concern not his subject, that of the fixing of variations into specific differences. No more unfor- tunate instance could be advocated than Mr. Palmer's of the cowslip and primrose. There are as many or more primroses on one stalk as there are cowslips, the difference between these two species being chiefly in the leaves, the length of the flower-stalk (generally very short in the primrose) or peduncle, and that of the pedicels (generally long in the primrose) the points of the sepals, the shape of the corolla, and the folds at the mouth of the corolla-tube. There can hardly be two more distinct species in one genus and dl probability points to their having a common ancestry rather than to one as the ancestor of the other. Though Mr. E. A. Brunetti has read the "Descent of Man," his scientific training does not seem to have included any attempt at defining such all- important terms as " variety " or "species," nor a clear listory of our views of evolution. Hybridism is not io\v considered an important mode of origin of pecies, nor is there any evidence in Mr. Brunetti's (iiotation that the Spikehorn-buck of the Adiron- lacks is a species originating from hybridism rather han from so-called casual variation. Domestic dogs, lucks and pigeons, belong almost exclusively to Jiree species ; so that the fertility of hybrids between their varieties proves little or nothing. A far more important case as against Mr. Barclay, is that of the Hybrid geese quoted from Mr. Darwin's letter to " Nature " on p. 40. — G. S. Boulger. "Mealies" is merely the native name in Natal for maize or Indian corn. I gave a definition of the word twenty years ago in my " Commercial Dictionary of Trade Products." — /-*. L. Simmonds, 61 Cheapside. Morbid Sensations. — I cannot agree with your correspondent, "A Common Man," that the objec- tion to seeing serpents fed at the Zoological Gardens is necessarily a "morbid" feeling. I should rather incline to think that if, as a naturalist, a humane person wished to see the operation once or twice, he would no more desire to witness it habitually than to watch a cat playing with a live mouse. It is a " normal working of nature " for carnivora to eat human beings when they can get them ; but one would not care to study a tiger's treatment of a "common man" in an Indian jungle. While it is quite true that the mere shrinking from the sight of pain is no proof at all of humanity, yet needlessly to witness its infliction, does not seem calculated to increase one's sensitiveness to the sufferings of others, whether they belong to our own race or to the dumb creation. Especially is this true as regards children. They would see nothing but cruelty in serpent feeding, and probably the same would be true of many grown-up but ignorant persons. — Another Common Man. Unripened Figs. — On p. 281 of the last volume, the Rev. Z. J. Edwards requests information as to the cause of figs not ripening in the open air ; perhaps the following remarks may prove of service to him. The fig is of extremely vigorous growth in ordinary garden soils, too much so in fact, for the strength of the plant is expended in the production of coarse foliage and shoots, which are too full of sap to be matured by our brief summer. The plant naturally requires a light calcareous soil, which must be pre- pared artificially if it cannot be otherwise obtained. The old trees should be taken up, freely shortening both roots and brandies, a quantity of lime rubbish being mixed with the soil, and then replant the trees, confining the roots within a space of three feet from the main stem. The fig also requires all the sun-heat to which it can be exposed, even in the south of England, and if the tree mentioned by your corre- spondent " has a high wall on the south and east," it could not be in a worse position. If, however, it is planted on the south side of a wall, or in a warm sunny place, and the foregoing particulars as to soil are observed, there will be no difficulty in obtaining abundant supplies of ripe figs. Possibly the variety may not be well adapted to outdoor cultivation. Brown Turkey is the best for the purpose. — L. Castle. Woodcocks or Goatsuckers. — In reference to- the blunder which your correspondent T. A. B. supposes Chas. Kingsley to have made as to the habits of the woodcock, I will describe some of the habits of this bird which I have observed. In the summer of 1877, while staying at Carrbridge in Inver- ness-shire, I was in the habit of strolling along the outskirts of a dense pine-wood in the vicinity. I here noticed the following habits of the woodcock. The pine-wood is situated on a hillside, so that, standing on the moor below, one can see along the tree tops for a long distance. About 150 yards to the north of this hill on the low lying ground, there is a birch- wood plantation, along the north skirt of which runs the river Dulnain. After sunset, when the deepening twilight was beginning to render distant objects in- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 7i distinct, I have seen the woodcocks rising from the dense part of the wood, and after sailing about for a short time, they would again settle among the trees. At other times they would come on steadily until the birch-wood was reached, when they would turn, fly back and alight in the wood. I have seen from forty to fifty birds in one evening. I shot two on the wing, so that I am certain as to their identity. Kingsley accurately describes their movement when he says, "they hawked to and fro," but their flight is slower and heavier, than that of the swallow. When dis- turbed in flying, they turn hurriedly, making a fluttering motion as if wounded, and then make for the depths of the forest with increased speed. Their cry when heard from a distance, has a croaking sound but when near at hand, a distinct chuckling sound is heard. Surely your correspondent has been thinking of the black-cock when he read Kingsley's evening scene "under the hunter's moon." — Tom W. Ogilvie. Mortality of Shrewmice. — Though I cannot lay claim to the title of a "learned correspondent," I am able to quote from the works of one who can — the Rev. J. S. Wood. On page 433 of his volume on Mammalia, I find, after a notice of the fact mentioned by your correspondent, A. Malan, he says: "The presence of the animals is the more remarkable, because there are so many predatory animals and birds, such as cats, weasels, stoats, owls and hawks, which would be very likely to kill such small prey, but having slain them would be almost sure to eat them." Well-bred cats or terriers are very averse to eating a rat or mouse killed by other than themselves, which may account for their unmangled condition. A possible cause of death noticeable in autumn, is that they have delayed retiring to their long winter sleep, and have bem taken by a sudden frost and chill to one still longer. -C. J. IK NOTICES TO CORRESPONDENTS. To Correspondents and Exchangers. — As we now publish Science-Gossip a week earlier than heretofore, we cannot possibly insert in the following number any communi- cations which reach us later than the gth of the previous month. To Anonymous Querists. — We receive so many queries which do not bear the writers' names that we are forced to adhere to our rule of not noticing them. To Dealers and others. — We are always glad to treat dealers in natural history objects on the same fair and general ground as amateurs, in so far as the " exchanges " offered are fair exchanges. But it is evident that, when their offers are simply disguised advertisements, for the purpose of evading the cost of advertising, an advantage is taken of our gratuitous insertion of "exchanges" which cannot be tolerated. The .Curator of the Cambridge Botanic Garden (R. Irwin Lynch) will feel extremely obliged to gentlemen who will have the kindness to forward him seeds or plants of rare and choice British species. All will be carefully recorded and cultivated. W. D. E. — The contents of the paper marked A, were not the excrement of insects, but small pupa-cases. J. W. Harvey (Selhurst). — The specimen which you sent us, together with a photograph, is a sponge, a species of Hali- chondria. T. G. H. — The specks on the Seville oranges you spoke of, are the empty pupa cases of Cetraria citripc}-da. W. Gault. — We are much obliged to you for the interesting ■specimens of Waldheima Hibcrnica (Tate), from the Upper Greensand beds of the Zone, Ostrca columba (glauconitic sand- stone), Collin Glen, near Belfast. J. S. (Leigh). — The ferns enclosed were, No. 1, a variety of Athyrium FUix-famina; No. 2, probably a New Zealand species of Poly •podium [Phymatodes) pusiulatuw. J. A. C. — Hydra fusca may be known by the usually brown colour of its body, although the best means to distinguish" it from Hydra vulgaris is to note its tentacles, which are several times longer than the body, whilst those of //. vulgaris are usually only the length of the body. " Swarm spores " is the name given to certain reproductive cells found only in cellular cryptogams, and which are endowed with remarkable spon- taneous power of motion, usually in water. You will find an account "of them in Thome's " Structural "and Physiological Botany," edited by Dr. Bennett, chapter vi. p. 250. A. E. Hunt. — The food of the Kentish plover is very much like that of the ring plover, consisting of worms and insects, as well as small shrimps, shore-hoppers, &c. W. B. Scott. — You had better inquire in our Exchange column for specimens of the natterjack toad, and we have no doubt you will be able to obtain them. J. Arthur Floyd. — Dixon's "Geology of Sussex," a new edition of which is now appearing, gives illustrations of the most characteristic of chalk ■ fossils, whilst those of the greensand are figured in the volumes of Palaeontographical Society. You will find good and ample descriptions of the commoner fossils of the chalk and greensand, in Dr. Mantell's " Medals of Creation." J. M. V.— Get the " Saturday Half-Holiday Guide," which will give you all the information you want as to clubs, and places for natural history and geological exploration around London. J. J. — The subject is to a very large extent still open to doubt. J. S. (Ledaig). — We are sorry to say that we received your tin box full of small fragments of glass and a vile smell. The nudibranchs had disappeared that way. Can you send us others, more safely packed ? J. W. Bentley. — The best work on " Mineralogy," is by J. D. Dana. On Geology, consult Professor Greene's " Physical Geology," Ramsay's " Physical Geology of the British Isles," fifth edition, and Lyell's " Student's Manual of Geology." Nicholson's " Manual of Palaeontology " is an excellent book. Penning's " Field Geology," and Woodward's " Geology of England and Wales " deal quite sufficiently with the practical part of this science. H. M. — We cannot tell from this sketch the species of the insect you sent us, but it is, as far as we can judge, one of the Mantids, or leaf insects. J. S. (Rotherham). — You will find a capital sketch of the Geology of New Zealand, by Dr. Hector, in Silver's " Handbook for Australia and New Zealand," published in London at about 2S. 6d. A paper on the Geology of New Zealand, with special reference to the drift of that country, is published in the " Pro- ceedings of the Geologists' Association," vol. iv. No. 7. Rev. H. H. S-, and others. — Any reader of Science-Gossip can join the Botanical Exchange Club, by sending a fee of $s. to defray the expenses of carriage, assortment, &c. We may add, for the benefit of intending and actual members, that it is now time this year's names and subscriptions were sent in to Mr. D. Bogue, 3 St. Martin's Place, Trafalgar Square, London, W.C. M. L. D. — You had better forward your question to the Editor of the " English Mechanic," who will, we doubt not, give you a full and complete answer. J. E. Westby. — The specimen of a boulder (as far as we can judge from so small a fragment), indicates that the rock is one of the highly metamorphosed sandstones, possibly from the altered Silurian rocks of the Highlands. R. R. (Newcastle-on-Tyne). — It is a micro-fungus, one of the cluster-cups f.-EcidiumJ. See Cooke's " Microscopic Fungi." J. P. (Norwich) — The spots on leaf sent to us were the result of a fungus — Lccvthca Rosa'. H. H. (Salford). — Unfortunately the lichens were much broken, hence undistinguishable ; the larger one, much branched, is the common reindeer moss (Lichen rangiferinus). C. E. S. (Channel Islands). — Thanks for excellent specimen, now we have no doubt we were correct ; it is a good form of A. lanccolatum-crispatum, the colour of the frond is charac- teristic of lanceolatum. J. S. (Bagot, Jersey). — The little red spots on the lichen are, as you jud^e, the fruit. J. A. — No. 1, is Melandrya caraboidcs, one of heteromerous beetles, common in old wood ; it flies in the hot sunshine ; No. 2, Otiorhynchus picipes, a very common and destructive weevil ; No. 3, Pha-don tumidulum, a very common chrysomelid ; No. 4, Phyllobins argentatus, a very abundant^ weevil. As an introduction, get Rye's " British Beetles," published by Lovell Reeve & Co. ; as a descriptive manual, Cox's " British Beetles," published by Janson. E. E. Edwards. — The leech you sent us is the Hwrnocharis pisciuiu, which is semi-parasitic upon such fishes as the pike and carp, &c. The best way to preserve it would be in glycerine. Get "Davis on Mounting," price is. 6d., from D. Bogue, 3 St. Martin's Place, Trafalgar Square. This book will afford all the assistance a beginner needs in mounting microscopic objects. Learner. — Get " Notes on Collecting Natural History Objects," price 3J. 6d., from 3 St. Martin's Place, _ Trafalgar Square, London, where you will find full details concerning the col- lection and preservation of beetles and other insects. You may get a microscope from two guineas, upwards, suitable to your purpose from nearly all the makers who advertise in Science-Gossip. Filius.— It is a form of Parmelia ambigua (Wulf) ; there are two species on same tree, we only state our opinion on the one. 72 HA R D WI CA'E'S S CIENCE -GOS SIP. N. B. C. — i, Vsnea barhata; 2, Parmelia saxatilis ; 3 and 5, no apothecia ; 4, form of Parmelia saxatilis. The best book on the subject is " The Lichen Flora of Great Britain." J. A. W. (Darlington). — No 4, Lecanora -vitellina ; No. 3, Cladonia cervicornis ; No. 6, Cladonia fiyxidata ; we are unable with certainty to name the others, they bear no fruit (apothecia). We should recommend you Mudd's Lichens. T. W. O. (Aberdeen). — We think they are — 2, Cladonia pyxidata ; 3, Stereocaitlott coralloidcs ; 4 and 7, Parmelia saxatilis ; 6, Reindeer moss [C. rangiferinus). J. Atkinson. — We will try to answer your queries next month. EXCHANGES. Wanted, Bell's " Quadrupeds," and Hewitson's " Oology," for stuffed birds or cash. — E. £. Evans, Brimscombe, Gloucester. A quantity of foreign diatomaceous material, in exchange for well-mounted slide of Uredo caries, Dec, Uredo ftrtida (Bauer), Uredo segetum (or the flour acarus), or Trichina spiralis (Fasciola licpatica], or Cysticcrcus cellnlosus mounted. A. Smith, Chemical Laboratory, Essex Road, Islington. A rectangular tube and prism, with Beale's camera, for drawing objects with the microscope in the erect position. Will fit a microscope with tube of 1 inch diameter. Wanted, cabinet for microscopic objects or cash. — Address, T. V. D., 33 Sloane Street, London, S.W. Niagara River filterings, in exchange for other slides. Also filterings unmounted. — Herman Poole, Practical School, Buffalo N.Y., U.S.A. Duplicates of the following good British land and fresh- water shells, offered in exchange for other desiderata — Lim. Burnet ti, L. involnta, S. oblonga, Vertigo fiusilla, V. sn.b- striata, I '. al/>t'slris, 1 '. minittissima, V. angnstior — deside- rata, good foreign land shells, named, British birds' egg*:, or several species of British land shells (locally common in many places) in quantity. — W. Sutton, Upper Claremont, Newcastle- on-Tyne. Offered in exchange for Hincks' Hydroida or microscopic apparatus, 75 species of foreign ferns, some very rare. Particu- lars on application. — E. C. J., Foley Cottage, Hampton Road, Bristol. Wanted, "Midland Naturalist" complete, any vols.* of Science-Gossip, except for 1877 and 1878, unbound preferred. " Popular Science Review " for 1871, or any works on Bryology ; exchange, Dawson's " Origin of the World," Watson's " Reason- ing Power of Animals," Cook's " Biology," all new, or cash. — J. R. Murdoch, 40 Leighton Lane, Leeds. Wanted, a Crouch, or Swift's student's microscope, cheap ; state lowest cash price.— J. R. Murdoch, 40 Leighton Lane, Leeds. A number of well-mounted microscopic slides for exchange. Lists invited. — R. Hawkins, Hillside, Hastings. Cassell's " Races of Mankind," bound in 2 vols. Wanted in exchange for the above, geological or zoological books or fossils. — J. Arthur Floyd, Alcester, Warwickshire. Wanted, a well-mounted and perfect skeleton of the common frog. — Fred. James, Tovil, Maidstone. Wanted, good specimens of the following British mosses, any species of Leskea, except sericea ; also any of Gymno- stomum with fruit. Exchange foreign or British fern roots or fronds. — Miss Ridley, Hollington, Newbury. Wanted, catalogue, or parts 1 and 2 of "Marine Polyzoa," Busk, 1852. Good exchange. — A. Palmer, Lyme Regis, Dorset. Scotch carboniferous fossils (good specimens), in exchange for fragments of British or foreign sponges. Send lists of sponge-; to J. Smith, 94 Dundas Street, Glasgow. Bkachiopoda from the Irish Cretaceous rocks, including Waldheima Hibeniica, figured in Juke's " Manual of Geology," Rhynckonella robusta (these two rare species are peculiar to the Irish Cretaceous strata), Rh. dimidiata, var. convexa, Rh. limbata, var. Icntiformis, Terebratula Hibernica, Ter. obesa (very fine), several rare varieties of Ter. carnea, and many other species, in exchange for brachiopods or sponges, from the Cretaceous beds of England and the continent. Send lists to Wm. Gault, 105 Westmoreland Street, Belfast. Wanted, a triple nose piece, in exchange for Dent's dip- leidoscope with compass and level, new. — W. Eyre, Swarraton Rectory, Alresford, Hants. Sections of the corals of Devon for the microscope. Also various kindsof fossils, British shells and minerals, for large kinds of foreign shells, and good large specimens of double- reflecting span in cubes, or good specimens of Silurian fossils.— A. J. R. Sclater, Bank Street. Teignmouth. Wanted, animal parasites in exchange for other good micro objects.— Thomas dirties, 244 High Holborn, London. "Nature "for 1879, one number missing, and Blackwood's Magazine for 1879 complete, to be exchanged for good micro slides. Insect anatomy prefer. ed. — T. E. Watson, 2 Clifton Place, Newport, Monmouth. Will exchange 35 shilling parts of Goldsmith's " Animated Nature," also 40 of Cassell's ''Natural History," now publishing, first volume bound in covers, for eggs, insects, minerals, shells, fossils, marine objects.— W. J. Richards, Hassel Street, New- castle, Staffordshire. Sparmania Africana, figured in last year's Science-Gossip. Flowers sent in exchange for any object of microscopic interest. — M. Medhurst, 1 Gladstone Road, Liverpool. A few ferns in fructification, stained and mounted transparent, for selected diatoms or pure gatherings. — H. S. Tarrant, Pala- tine Road, Didsbury, near Manchester. Wanted, setting-boards from 1 inch to 5$ inches, corked and papered. Must be in good condition, and 14 inches long. Part exchange birds' eggs and cash. — J. M. V., 16 Merrion Square, South Dublin. Two vols, of the "Naturalist's Note Book," 1S68-69, cost 6s. each, for Stainton's " Manual of British Butterflies and Moths," or Rye's " British Beetles."— R. McAldowie. For slide of carboniferous sponge spicules, very large speci- mens, send slide of recent sponge spicules, spicules or wheels of sea-cucumbers, or spicules of sea-urchins, to J. Smith, 94 Dundas Street, Glasgow. For exchange a capital collection of British fossils, also interesting series of rock specimens and some minerals. Wanted, one or two cabinets to hold 1000 or 500 micro-slides each, recent and fossil foraminifera, rock sections, rock cutting, and sediments. — E. Wilson, 18 Low Pavement, Nottingham. First-class slides of picked and rare diatoms, in exchange for deposits from He of Tiir (Denmark), Bermuda, and others. Will give quite splendid slides for very rare deposits. — J. Tem- pore, 249 Moss Lane, Manchester. I have some beautiful Indian butterflies and beetles, I wish to exchange them for side-blown British birds' eggs, or books on natural history. Newman's " Moths " especially wanted. — R., 44 Blenheim Street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Well-mounted diatom deposit exchanged for picked diatoms or pure gatherings.— P. Z., Lilly Villa, Victoria Park, Man- chester. Wanted, "Journal of Botany," half price and postage. — W. W. Poole, Mechanics' Institute, Winchester. Golden Eagle parasites, also several other species both rare and common, in exchange for British butterflies or offers, — H. J. P., 81 Bridge Street, Manchester. First-ci.ass micro material wanted in exchange for well- mounted slides of injected kidney of porpoise, double injected liver, foraminiferous shells, 730 fathoms from St. Vincent Harbour. State offers before sending. — James Simpson, 48 Arthur Street, Queen's Park, Edinburgh. Slides of platinocyanide of Yttrium, in exchange for well- mounted slide or unmounted object of interest. — D. W. G., 9 Mincing Lane, E.C. Blue and yellow seienite wanted, exchange red and green selenite or in slides. Stage micrometer and stage forceps to exchange for slides, material, or accessories — E. Clover, Springfield, Sudbury, Suffolk. Wanted, euplectella or Venus's flower basket, exchange foreign lepidoptera. — J. Bates. Wanted, microscopic accessories, or magic lantern slides, will give in exchange side-blown British birds' eggs, or land and fresh-water shells. — James Ingleby, Eavestone, near Ripon. Well-mounted microscopic slides in exchange for small fish, plants, &c, for aquarium. — Thomas Shipton, The Terrace, Chesterfield. BOOKS, ETC., RECEIVED. "The Story of the Earth and Man." By Dr. Dawson, F.R.S., 6th edition. London : Hodder & Stourhton. "Chapters from the Physical History of the Earth." By Arthur Nicols, F.G.S. London : C. Kegan Paul & Co. " Midland Naturalist." February. " Land and Water." February. "Journal of Applied Sc ! ence." February. "American Naturalist." February. "American Journal of Microscopy." February. " Boston Journal of Chemistry." February. " Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes." February. "Ben Brierley's Journal." February. &c. &c. &c. Communications received up to ioth ult. from: — G. C. D.— M. W. N.— G. M.— C. F. W.— T. W.— W. D. E.— F. S. L.— C. J. W.— C. W. W.— A. P.— M. M.— F. G.— E. D. —J. A C— W. E— J. S.— W. H.— W. G— R. W.— M. R.— S. H— T. H.— L. C— E. E.— A. J. R. S.-H. T— J. S.— G. H. — W. C H.-W. J. H.— W. G.— J.B.— G. C. G.-V. C— J. F. — B. H.— R. E. L.-B. H.— F. J.— A. G.— A. E. H.— R. L. H. —J. A. F.— G. C— R. H.— H. G. W .— W. B. S.— W. H. N.— A. S.— E. E.-J. R. M.— H. P.— J. S.-S. C. H.— C- J. A. C— H. 1). B— S. T.— E. M. C— T. J. L.— E. E. E.— T. V. D.— W. D. S.— W. S.— E. C. J.-G. T. B.— E. S. W. K.-M. D.— E. W.-J. I.— J. S — D. J. S.— R. A— E. C.-G. H. G.— H. J. M.-F. W. P.— J. T.— R.— W. J. R.— W. W. P.— J. B. —J. W. B.— T. W. D — P. 2.— R. McA.— O. O.— T. G. R. D.— J. M. V.— H. H. S.— A. C. C— R. B. L.-H. T. P.— T. C— J. S.— J. L. H.— H. S.— W. S.— H. M— J. S— D. W. G.— J. B.— J. F. U.— R. H. A.— \V. H. J.— V. G.-J. J.— J. S.— G. S. B.— A. H. W.— J. M. W.— E. E. E.— T. S.— T. W. O.— M. M— J. S— J. T. T.— J. N. D. T.— G. E. M.-&c. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 73 A GOSSIP ABOUT NEW BOOKS. rE are glad to notice some of the books which have been lying on our table until the present opportunity. A new book by Pro- fessor Huxley is sure to excite the attention of all earnest students of biology. Few naturalists have at the same time so successfully de- voted themselves to original investi- gation, and the genuine populari- sation of science, as this author. The book which we have now the pleasure of noticing is a remarkable illustration of this capacity. The Crayfish : an Introduction to the Study of Zoology, by T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. (London: C. Kegan Paul & Co.), will be welcomed by all naturalists. It forms one of the well-known volumes of the International Scientific Series, and as the illustrations are all original, and in the highest style of wood-cutting art, it is really a very handsome book. Professor Huxley shows that the careful study of one of the commonest and most insignificant of animals may lead us from every-day knowledge to the widest generalisation, and the most difficult problems of biology. By the aid either of a crayfish or a lobster, to be dissected as the student progresses with this volume, a very complete structural knowledge may be worked out. It is impossible too highly to recommend a work like this, at once so luminously, simply, and yet scientifically composed. It suggests the profoundest sympathy with the student, for whose sake it has been written. Illustrations of the British Flora, by W. H. Fitch, F.L.S., and W. G. Smith, F.L.S. (London : L. Reeve & Co.) This well got up little volume is composed of the very clever wood engravings from No. 184. the illustrated edition of Mr. Bentham's " Handbook of the British Flora." The woodcuts were originally drawn by the above-named gentlemen, which is a quite sufficient guarantee for their excellency. There is a very copious index of genera and species of British plants, but no letterpress beyond the names of the 1306 illustrations. We are sorry, however, to notice that these names are often grossly misspelt, and we feel certain that neither Mr. Smith nor Mr. Fitch could be guilty of the carelessness that is here dis- played ; we have corrected something like fifty errors of this kind in our copy. With this exception, which we hope will be seen to in the next edition, we have nothing to say of the book except what is commen- datory, and we have purposely pointed out the defects in order that their rectification may enhance the value of the work. Chapters from the Physical History of the Earth : an Introduction to Geology and Paleontology, by Arthur Nicols, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (London : C. Kegan Paul & Co.) This is a very pleasantly written and well illustrated little book, which ought to take a good place as an introduction to the fascinating study of geology. The author shows himself to be acquainted with the latest discoveries in palaeontology and physi- cal geology, and he is familiar with the latest views on these subjects as held by our most distinguished scientific men. The book is separated into .two divisions, one dealing with stratigraphy and physical geology generally, and the other with palaeontology, in which the life of the globe is viewed as an evolu- tional whole. We think the value of this book would have been enhanced by a good index. The Story of the Earth and Man, by Dr. Dawson, F.R.S., &c, Sixth edition. (London : Hodder & Stoughton.) The fact that this work (which we had the pleasure to notice favourably on its first appear- ance) has reached its sixth edition, practically re- moves it from the sphere of criticism, and we can only express our congratulations to the author that the public have had the good sense thus to take his work under their patronage. We cordially say thus much, because we cannot agree with the author in his sometimes too severe denunciation of the theory of Evolution, although we sympathise with a man 74 HARDWICKK S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. who so conscientiously endeavours to be as orthodox in science as he evidently is in theology. A Text-Book of Field Geology, by W. H. Penning, F.G.S., Geologist, H.M. Geological Survey of England and Wales. We are very pleased to wel- come this, the second edition of Mr. Penning's valu- able work. It occupies a unique place in the varied literature of geology. This new edition has been revised and so considerably enlarged that it is almost twice the bulk of the first edition. It is now a perfect and complete manual and text-book of all that relates to every department of physical geology. The section on palaeontology, written by Mr. A. J. Jukes-Brown, F.G.S., adds very considerably to the value of this important work. A Monograph of Silurian Fossils of the Girvan District in Ayrshire, by H. Alleyne Nicholson, F.G.S., and Robert Etheridge, jun., F.G. S. (Edin- burgh and London : William Blackwood & Sons.) This is the second fasciculus of the work under- taken by these two well-known palaeontologists on the above subject, having special reference to the Silurian fossils of the "Gray Collection." It is occupied wholly with the Silurian Crustacea, dealing very fully with the various genera of trilobites. The five plates which illustrate this part contain some exquisite lithographs of trilobites and allied crusta- ceans. This work, when completed, will be a very valuable addition to the palaeontological literature of the older rocks. Erasmus Darwin, by Ernest Krause. (London : John Murray.) We regard this work as a comple- mentary contribution to the literature of Darwinism. The fact that a life of the grandfather of the author of the "Origin of Species" should after all this lapse of time have his biography written first by a German, indicates the deep interest which Germany takes in the Darwinian philosophy. Until the last few years we were better acquainted with Dr. Eras- mus Darwin as the writer of certain lengthy poems, such as the " Loves of the Plants," &c, which are now very little read, but Herr Krause has here shown by the frequent reference and review of Eras- mus Darwin's books, which is included in this bio- graphy, that many of his speculations were allied to those of Lamarck. Indeed, we may say that in his "Zoonomia" we find the undoubted germs of the doctrine of Evolution. If so, Dr. Charles Darwin stands in the position of having inherited many of his peculiar views. It should be understood, how- ever, that the theory of natural selection is entirely due to the latter. The present biography contains a preliminary notice by Mr. Charles Darwin of his grandfather, which extends to such a length that Dr. Darwin may be said to be a chief contributor to the volume. This part is exceedingly pleasant reading. Mr. W. S. Dallas has translated from the German all the part written by Ernest Krause with his usual ability. The Field Naturalist' s Handbook, by the Rev. J. G. Wood and Theodore Wood. (London : Cassell & Co.) A work of this kind has been very much wanted, and we therefore welcome Mr. Wood's handbook with much pleasure. In its compilation he has been assisted by his son. The book contains " general hints " for each month's collecting, and then we get arranged under each month a catalogue of the insects which are out and of their food plants, as well as lists of eggs, the plants in blossom, and the localities where they are to be sought. Botany for Children, by the Rev. George Henslow, M.A., F.L.S. (London: Edward Stanford.) Here is just such an elementary text-book of botany as might be put into practical use in schools, without the slightest doubt that children would take to it. The lessons are so arranged as to be illustrated by the dissection of some common plant selected from each natural order. The style of teaching here ex- hibited reminds us strongly of the zealous father of the author, the late Professor Henslow. The Great Frozen Sea, by Capt. A. H. Markham, R.N. (London : C. Kegan Paul & Co.) This is the fourth and cheaper edition of the authoritative account of the Arctic Expedition of 1875-6, Captain Markham being commander of the " Alert" on that occasion is consequently a first-rate guide to, and commentator upon, the incidents of the voyage. The book is very pleasant reading, and we are glad to see it appear in its present cheap and attractive form. Fourteen Months in Canton, by Mrs. Gray. (Lon- don : Macmillan & Co.) The authoress of this interesting book is the wife of Archdeacon Gray, whose work on China, in two volumes, published two years ago, excited so much interest. It consists of a series of letters written home during a fourteen months' residence in the city of Canton, and they are of a very bright and chatty nature, frequently sparkling with shrewd intelligence, and the work of a highly intellectual woman. Ethnology ; or, the History and Genealogy of the Human Race, by John Thomas Painter, jun. (Lon- don : Bailliere, Tindall, & Cox.) The author of this somewhat pompous title has a great deal to learn of ethnology as a science, and this little book looks more like a very literal commentary upon the earlier part of the book of Genesis, flavoured with a little reference to Assyrian, Babylonian, -Greek, and Chinese history. We would earnestly recommend him, before writing any more, to acquaint himself with the various well-known manuals on the subject. Youth, its Care and Culture, by J. Mortimer- Gran ville. (London : David Bogue.) We heartily commend this little work to all those who have to deal with the training of the young. It is full of cheerful wisdom and earnest sympathy for those in whose interests it has been written. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 75 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE TOAD. By J. Arthur Eisdell. No. II. THE colours of the toad are liable to some varia- tion : the upper parts are of a dirty lurid colour, blackish or brown, with sometimes a slight greenish tinge. You will notice the greenish tinge in the under skin from which the external cuticle has been removed ; its under parts are of a dirty yellowish white colour, sometimes spotted with black. Its head is flat on the top, its brain being small ; you will be able to see that there is but little room for its development. Above the eyes there is a slight pro- tuberance studded with pores, this protuberance is a large collection of the follicular glands before men- tioned. The toad has no teeth. Its quickest move- ment is an imperfect leap, but its usual pace is a kind of crawl. On being alarmed or threatened with danger it stops, swells its body, and on its being handled the arid secretion before mentioned exudes from the follicles, and a discharge of limpid water out of the vent takes place. The toad is a voracious creature, feeding upon slugs, worms, grubs, and insects of various kinds, and for this reason is very useful in gardens. Bell says that the toad refuses food which is not living, and will only take it at the moment when it is in motion. When about to feed the toad remains motionless with its eyes turned directly forward upon the object and the head a little inclined towards it, and in this attitude it remains until the insect moves, when, by a stroke like lightning, the tongue is thrown forward upon the victim which is instantly drawn into the mouth. This tongue is very soft and fleshy almost throughout, and has its base at the entrance of the mouth in the concavity of the interior edge of the anterior part of the lower jaw. The tongue when at rest and when the mouth is shut has its free ex- tremity in the back part of the mouth, the tip pointing down the throat, but when the toad puts it forth it is considerably elongated, the under surface of the tip being embued with a viscid mucous secretion, the insect is secured by its adhesive quality. When the prey is taken it is slightly pressed by the margins of the jaw, but as this seldom kills it, unless it be a soft tender larva, it is generally swallowed alive. Like the other amphibia and the reptilia generally, the toad sheds its skin at certain intervals, the old cuticle coming off and leaving a new one which has been formed underneath in its stead. Mr. Bell having often found amongst several toads which he was keeping some of brighter colours than usual, and with the surface moist and very smooth, had supposed that this appearance might have depended on the state of the animal's health, or the influence of some peculiarity in one or other of its functions. On watching carefully, however, he one day observed a large one, the skin of which was particularly dry and dull in its colours, with a bright streak down the mesial line of the back, and on examining further he found a corresponding line along the belly. This proved to arise from an entire slit in the old cuticle which exposed to view the new and brighter skin under- neath. He soon observed that the two halves of the skin thus completely divided continued to recede further and further down from the centre, and became folded and rugose, and after a short space by means of the continual twitching of the animal's body it was brought down in folds on the sides. The hinder leg, first on one side and then on the other, was brought forward under the arm which was pressed down upon it, and on the hinder limb being withdrawn, its cuticle was left inverted under the arm, and that of the anterior extremity was then loosened and at length drawn off by the assistance of the mouth. The whole cuticle was thus detached and was then pushed by the two hands into the mouth in a little ball, and swallowed at a single gulp. Mr. Bell says that he afterwards had repeated opportunities of watching this curious process, which did not materially vary in any instance. And now we will examine the toad internally. There is a maxim that the more carnivorous an animal is, the shorter and the less flexuous is its intestinal canal, a fact which is well illustrated by the toad, and in fact by the suborder to which the toad belongs. For whereas in the tadpole, which is herbivorous, we found this canal so many times the length of the creature's body, here in the grown toad we find the canal about once and a-half the length of the whole body. The toad's liver generally consists of three lobes, but sometimes of two only. A fatty matter, in shape something like two four-fingered hands, and generally of a yellowish colour, is deposited or secreted in the toad, its use is supposed to be a provision for the support of the animal during its torpid hybernation in the cold months. I think that I have been fortunate enough to see the action of the toad's heart, though I should think that the action I saw was very imperfect. As I was dis- secting a toad, and had its stomach open before me, I fancied I saw (and it rather startled me, I confess) its heart move, so I watched and in a short time the heart appeared to be convulsed, shrank up, turned pale, and then expanding, resumed its red colour ; this it did several times at intervals of about twenty seconds. The respiration of the toad is both pulmonary, i.e. by means of lungs, and cutaneous, i.e. by means of the skin. The former function, that of breathing by lungs, is effected not by successive alternations of contraction and dilatation — a movement which, as the toad possesses no ribs, or at least but rudi- mentary ribs, is impossible — but by the act of swal- lowing air, the deglutition of air. The air is inhaled through the nostrils by the dilatation of the pharynx, E 2 76 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. the oesophagus being closed to prevent its passing into the stomach ; then the posterior opening of the nostrils being also closed by the application of the tongue the pharynx is contracted and the air forced into the lungs. The lungs are of considerable size, lying on each side of the vertebral column ; they consist of large cells separated by the most beautifully delicate diaphanous parietes. From this peculiarity in the respiration, it follows that it can only be performed when the mouth is closed ; and that if the mouth be gagged open the animal would soon perish from the cessation of pulmonary respiration. The respiration of the toad is, as I said before, cutaneous as well as pulmonary ; this cutaneous respiration of the toad is the power, possessed not only by the toad but indeed by the batrachians generally, which the surface of the skin possesses of effecting those aerated water. On trying the effects of submersion under stagnant water frequently renewed they lived two months and a half, and then died from accidental neglect of changing the water. The results of placing them under running water were similar. In this case they were confined in a sort of cage and sunk in the river. Such is a slight glance at the results obtained with reference to the cutaneous respiration carried on through the medium of aerated water ; and those connected with the atmospheric respiration of the same surface are no less conclusive. Another experi- ment was performed by the total excision of the lungs, and of three frogs thus treated two died on the thirty-third and one on the fortieth day. The toads, too, have been kept alive for months in nets sunk under running water at a low temperature without any direct access to atmospheric air. Fig. 48. — Common Toad (Bufo vulgaris). changes in the blood which are usually performed by the lungs or branchiae. Dr. William Edwards, of Paris, entered upon the inquiry into this subject. I regret that he made his experiments on frogs in- stead of toads, but as both animals possess the power of cutaneous respiration, and are closely related, the results would most probably be much the same. The existence of cutaneous respiration in the frog (whose relation to the toad is very close) was proved by the simple experiment of tying a piece of bladder over the head so tightly as to prevent the possibility of communication with the lungs, so as indeed to produce complete strangulation. The frogs were then placed under water, and on examining the air contained in the vessel after an hour or two a sen- sible quantity of carbonic acid was detected. On placing frogs in vessels filled respectively with river water and with water which had been deprived of air by boiling, and inverted over the apertures con- tained in the shelf of a pneumatic trough, containing about ninety-eight pints, those in the latter lived on the average little more than half as long as those in the Fig. 49. — Natterjack Toad (Bufo calamita). The results of other experiments have proved that pulmonary respiration alone is not sufficient to support life without the aid of that of the cutaneous surface. It is very clear that this important function cannot be carried on unless the surface be constantly kept in a moist state. The branchiae of fishes and of Crustacea and the lungs of all pulmoniferous animals equally require that the respiratory surface in every modification should be humid ; for as soon as it becomes dry its function ceases and the animal speedily dies. But as the toad is frequently exposed to a dry atmosphere it is essential that there should be some provision made for a constant supply of moisture to the skin, which has just been shown to be a respiratory surface. This is effected precisely as in other surfaces which perform this function, namely, by a secretion of fluid from the surface itself. The extent of the skin is, however, so great that the whole internal moisture of the animal would speedily be exhausted unless a reservoir were provided for an extraordinary de- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 77 mand ; and now we shall see what this reservoir is and by what means it is replenished. When a toad is hastily seized, or even quickly pursued, it often voids a considerable quantity of water which is generally but erroneously supposed to be the urine. This water is limpid and pure, containing no traces of the usual component elements of the urinary secretion. I have tasted it and found it to be like pure water. It is contained in a sac, which has also been mis- takenly believed to be the urinary bladder. This is the reservoir to which I have alluded. When, there- fore, the toad is happily placed in a damp atmosphere, or in water, the skin absorbs a quantity of water which there is every reason to believe is secreted in the bladder just mentioned, where it is kept in store until the dryness of the skin requires a supply for the purpose of respiration, when it is again taken up and restored to the surface by which it had been first absorbed. (To be continued.) THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE/E. By F. Kitton, Hon. F.R.M.S. THE study of the minute forms of animal and vegetable life appears to have been enthu- siastically pursued by the philosophers who lived during the latter half of the seventeenth century. The names of Leeuwenhoek, Swammerdam, and Hooke are still "household words" with the microscopic student, but the very imperfect microscopes of that period rendered it impossible for them to discover the nature of those minute forms of life which we now call diatoms. According to Ehrenberg the first diatom observed was Synedra ulna (Leeuwenhoek in "Philosophical Transactions," 1703, pi. 1, fig. 8, and again de- tected by Joblot in 1 714-16, and figured in his " Observations faites avec le Microscope). We have referred to the paper* and figures of the former writer, and are unable to find any figure or descrip- tion that agrees with that genus, or indeed with any diatom. Joblot's work we have never seen. A few pages further on is a paper (author not given) en- titled "Remarks on M. Leeuwenhoek's Observations on Green Weeds and Animalcula." In this paper is the following paragraph : " In my observations on these stalks (roots of Lemna, called by the writer Lens palustris), I often saw adhering to them, and sometimes separate in the water, many pretty branches composed of rectan- gular oblongs and exact squares, which were joined together as in fig. 19 (our fig. 50), which I drew as exactly as I could from one of them. There are often twenty or more of these figures in one branch, * "Concerning Green Weeds growing in Water, and some Animalcula found about them." By M. Leeuwenhoek, 1703. which generally adheres at one end to the stalks of the plant, and I think it remarkable that these rectangular parallelograms are all of the same size, the longest side not exceeding one-third of a hair's breadth, the squares being visibly made up of two parallelograms joined lengthwise. They seem very thin, and the texture of every one is nearly the same." This description is almost sufficient to enable a diatomist to recognize not only the genus but the species, and the figure which we here reproduce leaves no doubt that the above form is the same as that now known as Tabellaria flocculosa (fig. 50). It is somewhat surprising that Ehrenberg should have over- looked this figure ; possibly he found the reference to Synedra ulna in Joblot's treatise, and had not seen the Transactions. We have been unable to discover any figure or description of any other species of diatom until the year 1745, when William Arderon detects the "oat-like animal" associated with his " hair-like insect " (Oscillatoria). Both are described with considerable minuteness, and illustrated by several figures in Baker's "Employment for the Microscope." This "oat-like animal" was un- doubtedly a Navicula, probably N. sphcerophora or N. amphisbana. Fig. 50. — Tabellaria flocculosa , about 130 diameters. The few forms of Diatomacece observed up to the end of the eighteenth century were considered to be either infusory animalcules or confervas. Although many papers appeared from time to time in various scientific publications, no work solely de- voted to the Infusoria appeared until 1766, when Midler's work was published. More than fifty years had elapsed when D. Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg published his great work, "Die Infusions*hierchen als Volkommene Organismen. Ein Blick in das Tiefere organische Leben der Natur," 1838, in 2 vols, folio : one of text containing 547 pages ; the other of plates, of which there are 64 beautifully engraved and coloured. The text consists of: (1) The Dedication to Frederic William, Crown Prince of Prussia ; (2) a long and interesting preface, in which are given complete directions for obtaining and pre- paring the Infusoria for observation. This is followed by the description of the various genera and species (in Latin, French, and German) of Infusoria, seventy- six pages and nine plates being devoted to the Diatomacese. Professor Ehrenberg included in his family Bacil- laria not only some of the Desmidese, but also some forms of Animalcula. This may be accounted for, as he to the last contended for the animality of the 78 HARDWICKE' S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. desmids (in part) and diatoms, and in his latest publication (" Fortsetzung der Mikrogeologischen Studien," 1875) he adheres to the name Polygastrica, in which he includes the diatoms. The position of the Diatomaceae in the vegetable kingdom is now generally admitted, although there are some few writers who think that they really occupy a neutral position. Although many of Ehrenberg's views are now known to be erroneous, and his figures are incorrect, owing to the imperfect objectives he used, and the want of sufficient magnification, his labours will always be of value to the micro-biological student, parti- cularly to those who make the diatoms their study. We therefore hope that this brief account of his first great work (his second is the " Mikrogeologie," 2 vols, folio, pp. 493, plates 40, 1854), and the follow- ing resume of his introduction to the Bacillaria will be of interest to the diatomist. The Bacillaria. The first form belonging to this family was pro- bably discovered by Leeuwenhoek in the year 1 702, and Joblot in 17 16, and which they named Vibrio Bacillus ; it does not, however, appear to be distinct from Synedra ulna. Baker in 1754 detected what was perhaps Naviculafulva and Acineta tuberosa (the latter, I need scarcely remark, is not a diatom, nor at all like one — F. K.). O. F. M tiller observed in 1 773 as a distinct member of this family Gomphonema truncatum, which he described under the name of Vorticella pyraria, and confused it with Carchesium. Schrank in 1776 appears to have intended by his Chaos infusoruiu, Naviculafulva. O. F. Midler described in 1779 Achnanthes brevipes as the pubescence of his Conferva hirta, which he had discovered at Pyrmont. In the year 1782 he detected in the water from the Ostsee that wonderful Bacillaria composed of many little staves sliding on each other, which he describes in 1786 as Vibrio paxillifer. This form was the first that gave special physiolo- gical interest to this family. Professor Hermann of Strassburg had previously to this (1784) published some observations on two Enchelys (JVav. gracilis (?) A r . pJuenicenteron), and a Vibrio (N. librile), all of which belong to this family, but the figures are imperfect. Midler in 1783 de- scribed a Fragilaria and a Gaillonella as plants under the name of Conferva pectinalis and armillaris. In his posthumous work (" Animalcula Infusoria Fluviatilia et Marina quae detexit, systematica de- scripsit et ad vivum delineare curavit," 4to, 50 plates, Haunioe, 1786) he places among the Protozoa his V. paxillifer, V. bipunctatus (Synedra ulna?) V. tri- punctatus (N. gracilis) as synonyms of Professor Hermann's Enchelys ; he also figures an Acineta as Vorticella tuberosa. Colombo ( " Osservaz. microsc. inGiornale perservir alia stor. raggion della medicina," t. iv. Venez. 1787, p. 1, afterwards translated at Leipzig, 1793, t. i. f. 4) described in 1787 the before-named G. truncatum as a plant-like animal. Gmelin (1788) considered Midler's jointed Bacillaria a distinct genus (Bacil- laria paradoxa), and placed it in the animal kingdom. Vahl, in the "Flora Danica," and the editor of the " English Botany," describes many of the Bacillaria as plants, but Schrank (1797) placed a number of these forms with the Protozoa ; he also described two Navicula under the names of Vibrio turrifer and fuscus, and Cocconema as Kolpoda luna. Kammacher also figures (1798, in Adams's " Micro- graphia") a Navicula (gracilis) as an animal. Since the year 1797, a number of important innovations have been made in this study, by Girod Chantrans, who supported them by his laborious but uncritical observations, and affirmed that many of the moving Algae produced animals, that these animals again became torpid motionless Algse, and that Conferva were Polypstems (Polypenstocke). That the Navicula; originated from Oscillatoria, and that their ova produced the Byssusflos aqinv, &c. This was detailed very fully by him in 1802. Since then only Ingen- housz has published similar information, asserting that the moving or animal-like condition of these little bodies became transformed into motionless plant-like organisms, and with more or less decision maintained that in these forms, not only was their animal or plant-like nature very undecided, but even that they belonged to the mineral kingdom. Roth, Decandolle, Dillwyn, Draparnaud, Grateloup, Hornemann, Thore Agardh, and Hooker designated the forms of this family as plants. Decandolle, in 1805, gave the name diatoma (which Loureiro had previously given to a phanerogamic plant) to two generically different forms, Striatella and a Fragil- aria. Achairus in 1805 designated the radiating threads of ova belonging to some aquatic insect, Echinella radiosa, considering it to be an Alga. In 1802 Agardh published the new generic name, Gloionema. In the important researches of Nitzsch, published in 1816-1 7, he placed the Diatomece, pris- matic Vibrios, and the related Conferva of the botanist (and which had previously constituted the older genus Bacillaria) in the animal kingdom. He was of opinion that some forms were wholly vege- table and others wholly animal. In 1819 Lyngbye constructed the genera Bangia and Fragilaria, the first partly, and the second en- tirely belonging to the Bacillaria, and extended the limits of the genus Echinella. Link (1820) published two genera of plants Hydralinum and Lysigonium, which probably correspond witli the genera Schizo- nema and Gaillonella, but they are very imperfectly described. In 1S22 Bonnemaison introduced two new genera of plants, Vaginaria and Spermogonia, and which are, perhaps, also species of Schizonema. About this time Bory de St. Vincent added the new HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 79 genera Achnanthes, Nematoplata (Fragilaria) and Styllaria (Cocconema) to his family of Arthrodiees, which he intended as a connecting link between plants and animals. He also added the genus Navicula to the family Bacillarees, which he placed with the Infusoria, and for which he intended his family Psychodees, although he does not mention it in his " Review of the Infusoria." Nees v. Esenbeck in the year 1823 separated the Oscillatoria and some other forms, and constituted a middle class between the Fungi and Algae, under the name of Hydronemata. Schrank again opposed the theory of the Bacillaria being animals, and distributed Midler's genus Vibrio among Bacillaria, Oscillaria and Vibrio. Gaillon of Dieppe in 1823, apparently misled by Girod Chantrans, through his mistaken idea of the breaking up of Marine Algae into Navi- culae, and the union of Naviculae ( Vibrio bipiaic- tatus) through mere juxtaposition with Algae {Giro- della {Conferva) eomoides), created a family of Nemazoaires as Conferva, but which were really Monads or Naviculae collected together. Bory de St. Vincent created in 1823 his genus Gaillonella, which he placed in the family of Conferva. Agardh, in 1S24, formed out of the Bacillaria an order of Algae, which he called Diatomeae, and placed the genera Frustulia, Meridion, Meloscira (Gail- lonella), Schizonema (Girodella), Desmidium and Gomphonema in it. He also placed in the order Nostochinae the two genera Echinella and Gloio- nema, both of which had previously belonged to the Diatomeae. Link, in 1824, approved of this arrangement, but placing the two last genera in the Diatomeen, and continued D. Leo's (confirmed by Girod Chantrans) observations, and considered the Oscil- latoria as mother forms of Naviculae. Treverarius, Steudel, Fries, and Sprendel, speak of the Bacillaria as plant-like organisms. Fries brought forward the crystalline, or mineral theory. Blainville (1825) took up Gaillon's researches in detail (which had hitherto been but little known) and published the re- sults in the "Diet. d'Hist. nat," art. Nemazoaires. Bory de St. Vincent (1825) founded, in the Arth- rodien, a new natural kingdom, the Doppelseelen (twofold nature) ; Psychodus (it ought properly to be called Dipsychica), the members of which became by turns, plants and animals. Agardh (1827) separated the genera Micromega, Licmophora (Echinella Homceo- cladia?), and Oncobyrsa, and placed them in the family of the Diatomeae, and removed the Micrasterias to the Ulvaceae. Leiblein (1S27) also approved the placing the Bacillaria with the Algae, and placed the genus Closterium with the Diatomeae. Greville, in 1827, constructed his genera Exilaria (Echinella), Monema (Naunema), and Berkeleya (Naunema). Turpin repeated, at Dieppe and Havre, Gaillon's observations, but without confirming them ; he, moreover, asserted Girodella comoides (Schizonema Grevillei) to be simply a plant, and the enclosed animals (the navicular bodies) some kind of vegetable matter (Globuline) which he called Naviculine. Sprengel (1827) contended that Achnanthes, Frustulia, Meri- dion, and Gloionema, were the eggs or young of animals, and the genus Diatomeae which he had formerly placed, together with Fragilaria and Schizonoma, with the plant he now considered to be equivocal (zweideutig). ( To be continued.) RESEARCHES IN POND LIFE. I MADE a discovery in my tank on the 17th of February which I think worth bringing under the notice of your numerous readers, in the hope that it may lead to some further remarks by those en- gaged in observations and research in pond life. Having promised to exhibit a few living specimens at an inaugural meeting of a new microscopical society, I was searching my tank for Stephanoceros, Vorticellae, &c, and fished up from the bottom a small piece of filamentous Algae, upon which I ob- served some minute organisms, and supposed them to be a colony of Floscules. Such a lucky catch I hardly expected, and bottled them up accordingly as beautiful objects to exhibit ; but upon placing them under the microscope I found they were a cluster of the singular organism called the Acineta, attached by their stems all along the filament, as shown in fig. 51. Now this organism is one, I believe, to which some interest attaches, from its being but rarely met with. It is figured and described by Mr. Gosse in his admirable work, and he states it to be a stage in the life-history of the Vorticellae, but I must say I have had some doubt upon the point, for hitherto I have never found it associated with any of the species of Vorticellae that have come under my observation during the many years I have devoted to researches in pond life in most of the suburbs of London. In this case, however, it seemed to bear out Mr. Gosse's statements, for, to my great surprise, on one filament of the Algae I found a group of Vorticellae of the Epistylis species, attached by its stem and branching out in the form of a tree. The stem and branches of this species are rigid, and on the tips of some of the branches were the cup-shaped Vorticellae with the fringe of cilia round the mouth, and on others the Acineta, as shown at fig. 52. This to me was a singular and striking discovery, and fortunately I had taken the specimen to show my friend, Mr. Badcock of the Royal Microscopical Society, and we spent some time in closely examin- ing it, for, as above stated, previously to the dis- covery of this group we had noticed that the Acineta were attached singly along the filament, and that at intervals there were two or three Vorticellae grouped together and attached to the weed also (see fig. 51 a), 8o HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. they appeared to be of the species figured in Prit- chard's " Infusoria," and named the Vorticella micro- stoma, being rather long in the cup and not so large round the mouth as the ordinary Vorticellce. They were clearly a distinct species from the tree form noticed a peculiarity which seemed to throw some doubt on that theory, as the stems of the Acineta appeared more clear and of a somewhat different appearance to the stems to which the Vorticella were attached, and upon still closer observation the stems Fig. 51. — Cluster of Acineta. Fig. 52.— Group of VorticelUe of the Epistylis species, with Acineta. just mentioned, could it be that they also were in any way allied to the Acineta ? After carefully observing this Epistylis group for some time, and speculating upon the probability of the Acineta being a stage in the ^development of the Vorticellse, or vice versd, we of the Acineta all seemed attached to the side of a Vorticellce stem rather than a continuation of the tree-like stem of the Epistylis. Now, if my observations are correct, is it not possible that the Acineta stems were attached parasitically to the stems of the Epistylis or Vorticella; ? I am the more inclined to take this view of it from some further observations subsequently made, which seemed very strongly to confirm their parasitic at- tachment. On another filament of the weed I for- tunately found a group of Vorticellas of the species called Carchesium polypinum, also a beautiful tree form with much larger bells and having contractile stems and as is well known a tap on the microscope stage causes the whole cluster to immediately contract closely together. Upon this group were also two or three of the Acineta, and when the contraction took place, the Acineta with their stems stood out rigid, thus clearly showing that the stem of the Acineta formed no part of the contractile stems of the Car- chesium, and again I also found a fine specimen of the Ophrydium, and upon this also were attached several of the Acineta. There is another circumstance I ought to mention, and that is that this Alga was taken out of a pond in the Victoria Park by my friend Mr. Badcock last autumn, and he then discovered that it was covered with patches of a gelatinous-looking substance which probably was a rudimentary condition of the Acineta, upon being placed in a cell and left quiet for a few minutes on the stage of the microscope, it threw out those fine radiations or pseudopodia, very much re- HA RDWI CKE ' S S CIE NCE -GOS SIP. Si sembling an aurora borealis (see fig. 53) precisely the same as from the corners of the more perfectly de- veloped form, and I presume it is from this rudimentary condition that all these perfect individuals I have now discovered have developed, as I turned the Alga into my tank after examining it, where it has remained undisturbed to the present time. These Acineta very much resemble the Floscula, but there is hardly particles. With small specimens enough has now been done as regards removing the soft parts, but where the forceps or pincers are at all large, they too must be freed from their internal matter, and this can be done by either removing them altogether and withdrawing the contents by means of a flattened iron hook, or by making a hole on the under side of the limb and inserting the hook through that. When all Fig' 53. — Probable rudimentary condition of Acineta. any perceptible movement in them, and there is no visible opening or mouth into the interior ; they are also destitute of any gelatinous case or envelope. W. G. Cocks. ON THE PRESERVATION OF CRUSTACEA FOR THE CABINET. THERE are few objects so interesting and yet so comparatively scarce as a good collection of ■Crustacea. No doubt the scarcity of such collections is partly owing to the comparative difficulty attending the drying and preservation of these animals, and with this idea I wish to explain in a few words a method which, although capable of improvement, is one that I have found to answer the purpose fairly well. In the first place, it is necessary that the specimen should be operated upon as soon as possible after death ; but where this is almost impossible, much of the setting up can be attended to afterwards, so long as the internal structure is taken out and the specimen packed away in a dry place under the conditions which I will now attempt to describe. Let us take for example a specimen of the Norwegian lobster {Nephrops Norwegicus) ; lay the specimen on a board in its natural extended position, and with a sharp knife sever the abdominal segments from the carapace. When this is done the internal structure can be entirely removed, and great care should be taken to do this as thoroughly as possible, without injuring the external skeleton. The carapace should also be removed, in order to cut away the gills from between it and the inner calcareous wall. After this has been carefully done sprinkle the damp parts with fine powdered alum, which will assist in drying the remaining the parts are'thus skeletonized, they should be set up separately on a piece of soft pine board and the legs and antennre held in suitable positions by means of long pins, and it is very necessary to keep the several parts of each specimen together, in order to avoid the ludicrous mistake of fixing the abdomen of one to the carapace of another which may be of different size or sex. The dissected parts must now be slowly dried ; and now is the period when a great risk is run of entirely spoiling the specimens, for if they be exposed to the glare of a hot sun or to too fierce a heat from a fire, they will either bleach, or, in most cases, turn a brilliant red ; but if care is bestowed on this part of the preparation they will be ready after a few days' exposure to what is best of all, a drying draught of air, provided the weather is favourable, to set up for the cabinet. As regards the setting up, the best lesson in this is to be learnt by going and looking at a live crustacean and following as nearly as it is possible to do the attitude of the animal when standing motionless, and by a few judicious placings of the antennae, legs and forceps a specimen can be made to look far more life-like than any specimen of lepi- doptera or coleoptera in a cabinet. For readjusting the dissected portions gum tragacanth is perhaps the best, as of course it is desirable that no adhesive matter should be visible after the creature is set up. If the specimen has a sufficiently transparent carapace it will be found advantageous to insert cotton wool coloured in such a way as to bring the appearance of the external skeleton as nearly as possible to that of its living comrade ; for instance, black wool in the carapace of an Astacus fluviatilis will often render its outward appearance much more natural than if it remained empty. For the treatment of crabs the carapace should be carefully removed and 82 HA XDWJCKE'S S CIE NC E- GOSSIP. the foregoing method proceeded with ; but in the case of the very small Crustacea they may be set up and dried as they are, but it is as well to bear in mind that wherever it is possible the whole of the in- ternal structure should be removed. In conclusion I would recommend that while this is being done, Professor Huxley's splendid work on the cray-fish should be open, and by attempting to make out the various structures by aid of it, what is often a dis- agreeable part of the preparation of Crustacea is thus turned into a very interesting and highly instructive operation. I can only say that I should be very pleased to offer any suggestions or assistance on the above subject to any one desirous of working the Crustacea, and I should be still more pleased to receive any suggestions or assistance myself. Holly Mount, Croydon. Edward Lovett. OUR MOUNTAINS, AND HOW WE CAME BY THEM. By the Rev. J. Clifton-Ward, F.G.S., &c. HAVING in thought a series of papers upon "Nooks and Corners of the Lake District," I propose to introduce the subject by some general considerations upon the origin of our mountains as a whole. Many years' residence and work among the hills of Cumberland and Westmoreland have led me to see how very little mountain structure and mountain origin are understood by the visitors to this beautiful district, and as my former duties in connection with H.M. Geological Survey have given me opportuni- ties of knowing the country as perhaps few can know it, I feel it in great part a duty as well as a pleasure to do what I can to give the traveller and happy resident in the district an insight into the history of the Cumbrian hills. I do not purpose to write scientific essays on the subject ; those who want such I would refer to the early papers by Sedg- wick and others, and to my more recent official " Memoir on the Geology of the Keswick District" (or northern part of the English lake district), and Papers communicated to the Geological and other Societies ; but I desire to bring forward in a popular, yet true manner, the leading facts bearing upon the question of the mountain history. I find two very common notions prevailing among the unscientific public with regard to mountain origin. Some, who really give the matter no thought, and are but little wont to use their minds, look upon hill and vale as having come into being just as we see them, springing, as it were, into existence by an Almighty fiat. Others talk learnedly of the stupendous upheavals by which this mountain or that mountain group have been produced, and can think of nothing grand in nature but as the result of catastrophes and cataclysms. The few look inquiringly on the mountain scarp and rugged or smooth out- line, and wonder longingly whether all this beauty is the result of powers working quickly or slowly, at one time or at all times, or whether the carving and fretting of nature's sculpture is not even now going on ; such, seeking truth from Nature, one of the revelations of the Great Unseen, approach the sub- ject with humility and earnestness, and to them many of the mysteries of nature are unveiled. In such a spirit we will make our mountain study, sure that: " Nature never did betray The heart that loved her." First let us glance at the district as a whole. It is but a small one. You may start early on a summer's morning from the northern end of the mountain group, and ere nightfall have crossed on foot the whole district, coming out of the mountains about Coniston or Windermere. Or again, starting from the eastern side, in the Haweswater valley, the whole district might be crossed with ease, on foot, to the western limits of the mountains, in a couple of days. On the north, one group of mountains, of which Skiddaw and Blencathra are chief, stands out alone, being separated from the main mountain district by the comparatively broad Keswick Vale. The Hel- vellyn range forms a long north and south mountain axis, lying a little east of the true centre of the district as a whole ; and a less regular east and west axis, of which Scafell Pikes form the highest point, divides the country, shedding its water northwards from that shedding southwards. In a general way the whole district may be compared to a low dome, the outline of which may be constructed by joining together the mountain summits, which dome is fur- rowed by deep and narrow valleys radiating to almost all points of the compass, but the country draining northwards is on the whole clearly separated from that draining southwards by a more or less distinct east and west axis or water-shedding line. In many parts the valleys are so near to one another that no sooner has the traveller climbed one mountain side and gained the summit, than the descent begins abruptly into the next valley ; in fact, the outline in such parts may be represented by a zigzag line. Here it will be seen that the matter required to fill up the valleys is about equal to that forming the mountains ; we have only to turn such a figure upside down, and we shall see that the valleys answer just as well for mountain outlines, and the mountains then appear as valleys. There are indeed, in some parts, broadish plateaux, but, on the whole, the district is characterized by its mountain concentration, and I suppose there are few countries- of equal area showing so many mountain ridges and peaks and such frequent valley systems. We have here, indeed, a mountain miniature of exquisite finish and detail, and it is this fact which lends so great a HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. S3 ■charm to the district, for the traveller finds he has never to pass over long wearisome uninteresting tracts between one point of beauty and another, but that at every turn some new beauty meets him, each seeming more attractive than the last, as the eye becomes accustomed to Nature's plan. And here I should like to remark that no one need fear to come from other more exalted mountain areas to our humble Cum- brian group of hills. If he be a true lover of Nature, his Alpine or Scotch ramble will lead him to under- stand and therefore appreciate the English mountains all the better, and the longer he studies them, the more he will find to study ; each day, each changing aspect of nature, each season will reveal new beauties to him, and as a true friend becomes more loved and trusted in the longer known, so will Cumbria's hills perience proves this not to be the case ; indeed, I know of but one good instance of a mountain summit at all corresponding in outline to the convex (or anticlinal) curve of the strata forming the mountain, and this is in the case of Grasmoor, overlooking the foot of Crummock Water, see fig. 54. In most cases, indeed, the beds of rock forming mountain summits lie in basin-shaped (or synclinal) curves, as will be clearly seen by examining the sheets of horizontal sections showing the geological structure of the country, published by the Survey (see also fig. 55). This being so, we must clearly give up the idea that the mountains are individually due to the raising of the originally horizontal beds into arched curves corresponding to the mountain outline. Another possibility may be thus stated. May not Hope Gill, Dodd. Whiteside. Grasmoor. Ranncrdate Gill. 63 I 69 Fig. 54. — Horizontal Section of the Geological Structure of Lake District. Scale 1 inch to 1 mile, f, fault. Ling Fell. Wythop Moss. Wend of Broom Fell. Whinlattcr. N.E. of Hobcarton End. Sleet Hozv. Outcrside. 55 I 63 I I N.E.fr. Gnsedale Pike. Coledale Beck. s Fig. 55. — Horizontal Section of the Geological Structure of Lake District. Scale 1 inch to 1 mile, f, fault. endear themselves to those who live or stay for a while amongst them, and the better known the better will they be loved. But how have we come by these mountains ? What is their origin ? What their history ? Are they bosses and ridges pushed up out of an original level area, each mountain or ridge upheaved sepa- rately, the intervening valley bottoms representing something of the original level ? Let us test this idea, which certainly in some form prevails in the minds of many. The first possibility may be illus- trated thus : pastry in the process of baking is upheaved into ridges and mounds ; examine these, and the layers of paste are seen to slope away from the summit in every direction, the original flat beds or layers having been upheaved or thrown into domes or long arches. Now a large proportion of the rocks in our Lake District are distinctly bedded ; they have been thrown down, many of them beneath the waters of a sea, in more or less horizontal layers. If the mountains are due, then, directly to upheaval, these layers or beds will be found thrown into arches or -curves, the outline of which will correspond to the general outline of the mountain upheaved. But ex- the mountains be produced by igneous matter being forced up from below, the matter itself either forming the mountain protuberance, or carrying upwards, on its back, as it were, the overlying rocky beds ? Ex- amination again proves that this theory will not hold, for in the first place there are but a few rocky knobs or low hills— such as Castle Head, Keswick — wholly formed of igneous rock, and there is no evidence that the surface of the higher mountains or ridges are all of them immediately underlaid by intrusive rocks of igneous origin, or indeed that igneous and granitic rocks more generally underlie the mountain masses than the intervening lower ground ; in fact the exposures of granite that do occur are for the most part in valley bottoms and not on mountain summits. Hence our general conclusion, thus far, is that the individual mountains or mountain ridges, not being upheaved domes or arches of bedded rock, and not being protuberant masses of igneous rock, must exist as mountains by reason of their separation or the removal of the surrounding matter, that is to say, the valleys must be either wide gaping fissures, or caused by the carrying away of matter through some process of denudation. 8 4 HARDJVICRE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. NOTES ON SOME OF OUR SMALLER FUNGI. By G. E. Massee. No. II. [Concluded from page 7.] ONE of the commonest, and at the same time most beautiful of our smaller fungi, Nectria cinnabarina, presents itself under the appearance of bright pink or coral-like pustules, about half the brown and wrinkled surface. Sometimes a pustule may be met with presenting the characters of the two apparently distinct plants, which are now known to be conditions of one of the same plant. If a section Fig. 56. — Illustrations of small Fungi. 1, Cynophallus caninus (natural size) ; 2, Ascus containing sporidia of Spharia herba- , rum, a, a, paraphyses (magnified) ; 3, Sporidium of Spliceria. herbarum more highly magnified ; 4, Perithecium of Sphceria rostellata (magnified) ; 5, Ascus and sporidia of Sphieria ros- tellata (magnified) ; 6, Sporidium of Sp/ia-ria rostellata highly I magnified ; 7, Dothidea filicina (natural size) ; 8, Sporidia of Dothidea filicina (highly magnified) ; 9, Spha-ria rostellata (natural size) ; 10, Calocera z'iscosa (natural size) ; 11, Spore of Calocera viscosa (highly magnified). size of a split pea, bursting through the bark of dead 1 branches ; this fungus illustrates the very common phenomenon of dimorphism, or alternation of gene- rations.* If a few twigs bearing this parasite be examined the greater number of plants will probably be more or less pink and perfectly smooth. Mixed with these are sometimes a few of a deeper red or See Science-Gossip, p. 78, 1879. Fig- 57. — Illustrations 'of smaller fungi. 1, Nectria' cinnabarina- (natural size) ; 2, Section of conidia of Nectria cinnabarina 3, Section of ascophore of Nectria cinnabarina (magnified) ; 4, Ascus and sporidia from Nectria cinnabarina (magnified) ; 5, Sporidium (highly magnified) ; 6, Stevionitis fitsca (natural size) ; 7, Stemonitis fitsca (magnified) ; 8, Portion of network springing from stem (magnified); 9, Spores (magnified); 10,. Aspergillus glaucus (magnified); 11, Penicillium crustaceum (magnified) ; 12, Plant of Sp/uriia acuta (magnified) ; 13, Sec- tion of Spharia acuta (magnified) ; 14, Ascus and sporidia from. Spha-ria acuta (highly magnified) ; 15, Spharia acuta (natural! size). be made through one of the pink, smooth tubercles it will be found to consist of a pale yellow nucleus from which spring a number of branched threads forming a pink zone. These threads give origin to- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 85 minute, colourless, simple cells called conidia, which are easily detached and float in the water in which the section is immersed. A section of one of the brown and wrinkled tubercles shows quite a different structure : there is a common stem or receptacle, called a stroma, containing several hollow sacs, or perithecia, each communicating with the exterior by a narrow neck, and containing the sporidia, which are deve- loped in narrow, elongated, transparent sacs, the asci ; each ascus contains eight semi-setate sporidia. In this example the two stages classed according to the fruit would belong respectively to the two primary divisions of fungi ; the first or conidia stage, produc- ing naked fruit, would belong to the sporifera ; the second, or ascophore, to the sporidifera, characterised by having the sporidia contained in asci. It may be well to explain that the term "spore" is restricted to those germ-cells which are not contained in sacs or asci, " sporidia " to those which originate from the break- ing up of the contents of asci in which they remain enclosed until mature. The sporidifera contain two families, Ascomycetes, characterised by the saCs spring- ing from a basal collection of cells — the hymenium — and each ascus containing a definite number of sporidia, generally eight, illustrated by the genus Nectria. Another genus, Sphcvria, including nearly two hundred British species, also belongs to this division ; they are all minute and appear under the form of black rounded bodies terminating in a more or less elongated papilla, or neck, through which the sporidia escape. The globular receptacle, or perithecium, containing the asci, is frequently quite immersed in the branch or leaf on which the plant grows, the projecting neck affording the only evi- dence of the presence of the parasite. This genus is separated from Nectria by the absence of a stroma ; the latter, therefore, may be considered as a com- pound Sphoeria. The accompanying figures will render evident the relationship and differences between the two genera. S. acuta, common on dead-nettle stems, has a smooth, conical perithecium with a short thick neck, or ostiolum, sporidia fusiform, with many septa or divisions in the endochrome, slightly curved and arranged more or less in two rows in the ascus. A plant differing in [structure is equally common in the same situation, the perithecia rounded, ostiolum long and cylindrical ; a section will reveal, in place of numerous asci, a mass of very minute free cells, or spermatia. This is not now considered as a distinct species but a form of the preceding, JT. acuta, and is another illustration of polymorphism in fungi. The form containing spermatia is known as the spermogonia, while ascophore indicates the state pro- ducing asci. It must not be presumed that two stages or forms only are to be met with. In some species of Sphceria five different conditions have been de- scribed ; the functions of the germ-cells are but little known, the ascophore is looked upon as producing the complete and perfect fruit. S. herbarum common on herbaceous stems, is recognised by its multicellular sporidia. S. rostellata flourishes on dead rose and bramble stems, perithecia covered by the bark, which is pierced by the long neck, sporidia arranged in two. rows, each with four nuclei. In addition to asci, the hymenium of the ascomycetes gives origin to linear or club-shaped bodies termed paraphyses, which are generally looked upon as abortive asci. Another fungus belonging to this division is very common on the stalk of the bracken, forming long black lines which sometimes nearly cover the surface ; the sporidia are triseptate, the two- central cells larger and filled with greenish granules, the apical cells acute and hyaline ; this is Dothidea Jiliciiia. Cynophallus caninus represents the order Phalloidei, in which the deliquescent hymenium is at first enclosed in a volva or universal covering, com- posed of three layers, the middle one being gelatinous ^ in the present plant when the hymenium approaches maturity the volva is ruptured, and a long pitted, pale orange- coloured stem is rapidly developed ; the hymenium is greenish and slimy, and, mixed with the spores, is either washed off by the rain or devoured by flies, who appear to regard it as a dainty morsel. Most of the plants belonging to this order are remark- able for their fetid odour, the one under considera- tion being the least so. The genus Stcmonitis is known amongst Myxomycetes by the dark stem passing through the plant and giving origin to an intricately- branched capillitium, or web, which is covered with spores ; the investing skin, or peridium, is very delicate and disappears early. S. fusca is not uncommon on rotten wood ; it resembles the reed-mace in miniature, crowded, and springing from a permanent hypothallus or membranous expansion. Calocera viscosa is the very abundant much-branched, viscid, golden-yellow fungus, growing on fir stumps or prostrate fir trunks, the spores are white. Aspergillus glauats is the ubiquitous blue or glaucous green-mould, met with wherever damp organic matter is to be met with. I had this plant in view when I described Mucor mucedo' as " the sage-green mould, common on jam, bread, &c." In Aspergillus there is a creeping septate my- celium, from which spring erect fertile threads, which terminate in rounded heads, from these heads the spores are produced in chains, which are at first arranged in a compact ball and white ; afterwards the chains become isolated and radiate, at the same time assuming a glaucous hue. Penicillium crustaceitm, to. the unaided eye, is indistinguishable from the Asper- gillus, and affects similar situations. On examination the fertile threads will be found more evidently septate, and the top, instead of being globose, terminates in several branchlets, from which spring the strings of round spores, which are not so crowded as in Asper- gillus. The free terminal spore is always the oldest when they are formed in chains, the new ones being developed at the base or fixed end of the chain ; contact with water causes the spores to separate from 86 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. each other, and to break away from their point of attachment, so that in the examination of moulds it is necessary to ascertain the mode of attachment and arrangement of the spores before water is applied. (To be continued.) MICROSCOPY. The New Cross Microscopical and Natural History Society. — We have received the seventh annual report of this society. It contains an abstract of their monthly meetings, which appear to have been very productive, and Mr. Martin Burgess's (President) address, printed in full. Cause of Cholera in Fowls. — M. Pasteur has recently read a paper on this subject before the Academy of Sciences, Paris, entitled " On Virulent Maladies, and Particularly on the Malady commonly called the Cholera of Fowls." The small organism (or microbe) which causes this malady can be well cultivated in a broth composed of fowls' muscles neutralised by potash, and sterilised by a temperature of iio° to 115 . Inoculation of guinea pigs with it causes only abscess, but fowls inoculated with the contents of the abscess die. Fowls or rabbits living in company with the guinea- pigs having abscess become ill and die. The microbe multiplies in the intestines of fowls that have taken it with food, and the infected excrement is fatal to fowls inoculated with it. Repeated culture of the microbe by transference of minute drops from liquid to liquid does not weaken the virulence, but by a certain mode of culture M. Pasteur can weaken it. If twenty out of forty fowls be inoculated with the very virulent virus, they nearly all die ; but if the other twenty be inoculated with the attenuated virus, they all become ill, but very few die ; inocu- lation of those that recover with the very infectious virus does not kill them. The novelty here is the preservative effect of inoculation in a disease caused by a living organism (in the virus of small-pox, &c, no life has been proved). The cholera of fowls may be prevented from becoming fatal, and M. Pasteur describes the return to health of a fowl inoculated in the large pectoral muscles. He expresses the hope of obtaining artificial cultures of all kinds of virus, and notes the encouragement obtained for the search of vaccine virus of virulent maladies. Portfolio of Microscopic Objects. — We have received No. 2 of the "Portfolio of Drawings, and Descriptions of Living Organisms " (animal and vegetable), illustrative of freshwater and marine life which have been sent out with the living speci- mens by Mr. Thomas Bolton, F.R.M.S., 17 Ann Street, Birmingham. It contains, in the vegetable kingdom : Hydrodictyon utriculatum ; in the animal kingdom, Spongilla fluviatilis, Peridinium tabula- turn, Ophrydium versatile, Stentor Barretti, Carche- sium spectabile, Hydra vulgaris, Leptodora hyalina, Ilyalodaphnia Kahlbergensis [Dapknia Bairdii), Sida crystalliua, Diaptovius Castor, Carcinus Mcenas, in the Zcea stage, Cristatella mucedo, Lophopus crystal- Units, Spirorbis nautiloides, circulation in the egg of trout and young salmon. It gives us great pleasure to see Mr. Bolton succeeding so well with his scheme of a natural history studio. His weekly bottle is a great aid to naturalists, &c, who have not the time or opportunity to obtain the objects themselves. The Postal Microscopical Society. — We have received from the Hon. Secretary (Mr. A. Allen) the Annual Report of this Society for 1879, whose sixth annual meeting and dinner was held on November 10, at the Holborn Restaurant, Dr. H. Franklin Parsons, President, in the chair. When the Report had been read by the Hon. Secretary, the President delivered an address on "The Micro- scope in its Applications." We are pleased to see the healthy state of this society, and our interest in it is in nowise lessened, when we remember that it originated through a discussion in our columns (Science-Gossip, vol. x. 1874). The Quekett Microscopic Club. — We have received No. 42 of the "Journal" of this well-known society containing, amongst other matter, the inaugu- ral address of the President, Dr. T. S. Cobbold, F.R.S., &c, and articles "On Collecting and Mounting Spiders' Webs," by George Hind; "On the Germination of a Seed," by A. Martinelli ; "On the Embryology of Achimenes picta," by T. S. Cobbold, M.D., F.R.S. ; "On a New Universal Motion Stage and Object-holder," by R. G. West ; and a " Description of a ' Growing Slide ' for Minute Organisms," constructed by Julian Deby, C.E., &c. Meeting of the Manchester Microscopical Society. — This society held its " Inaugural Soiree," last February, the evening passing off very satis- factorily. About fifty microscopes were exhibited, most of them binocular, by various members. Dr. Tatham, M.D., the President, delivered an address on "The Microscope," in which he said it was an instrument known to Aristophanes. Amongst the slides shown were some exquisitely mounted speci- mens of marine algae, contributed by Miss E. H. Bowing. The society now numbers ninety-three members, and there is every reason to believe the number will be doubled before next February. Doncaster Microscopical Society. — We are glad to announce that a microscopical society has been formed in Doncaster under the above title. The society is in a very prosperous condition, as appears from its syllabus. Among the papers to be read during the present season are the following : HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 37 —April 17, F. Milner, "The Origin of Chalk as shown by the Microscope." May 5, J. M. Kirk, "Animal Life in its Lower Form." June 2, W. Walker, M.R.C.S., "On the Structure of the Organs of Locomotion in Man." New Fluid for preserving Organic Sub- stances.— In the " English Mechanic," No. 780, an account is given of a fluid for the preservation of animal and vegetable tissues, which is unique in its excellency. It was invented by M. Wickersheimer, of the University of Berlin. The fluid may be injected into the veins of the object to be preserved by it, or the entire object may be immersed in it ; in either case the elasticity of the tissues, and flexibility of the joints, are preserved. All sorts of vegetable organ- isms may also be preserved in this fluid. A colony of exquisite water Algse, which had been in the fluid for a year, appeared to be growing in the water. The formula for the preparation is as follows : In 3000 grammes of boiling water dissolve alum, 100 grammes ; common salt, 25 grammes ; saltpetre, 12 grammes; carbonate of potash, 60 grammes; arsenious acid, 10 grammes. After cooling and filtering, add to every 10 litres of the solution, 4 litres of glycerine, and 1 litre of methylic alcohol. Anatomical preparations that are to be preserved dry, are immersed in the fluid from six to twelve days, according to their size, and then dried in the open air. Microscopical Society of Liverpool. — The third ordinary meeting of the twelfth session of this Society was held at the Royal Institution, on Friday evening, March 5, 1880; Dr. J. Sibley Hicks, president, in the chair. Mr. Stuart, of Messrs. Ross & Co., London, exhibited and explained the principle of their new patent microscope, the chief advantage of which consists in a firm thin stage and swinging substage. The paper of the evening was by the president, Dr. J. Sibley Hicks, on "The Eyes of the Arthropoda." Dr. Hicks briefly described the condition of the eye in some of the Thysanura, pointing out that in two of the genera of that order the eyes consist only of dark pigment. After describing the conglomerate eye as seen in the common millipede, he proceeded to give a more detailed account of the eyes of spiders. He showed that the disposition of the eyes in these harmless and much despised little creatures, although uniformly symmetrical, is extremely varied. Referring to their colour and structure, he described the eyes of some spiders as being of the most brilliant hues, each eye a brilliant little shining hemisphere, and the tiny cluster of eyes grouped in front of the head in some of the Salticides sparkling and glistening like polished gems, vying in colour and lustre with the emerald and other precious stones. The structure of these eyes, although in a somewhat rudimentary condition, is the same as that which exists in the higher animals. The most important part of the paper was that which referred to the compound eye which belongs alike to the insect and crustacean. These animals have two compound eyes placed one on each side of the head, and each of these eyes when examined under a low power is seen to be divided into vast numbers of facets which in some instances are square, and in others hexagonal ; the eye of the common house-fly having as many as 4000 of these facets, and in some beetles the number being as great as 25,000. Dr. Hicks proceeded to minutely describe the internal structure of these compound eyes, showing that they are composed of numbers of cones and rods closely packed together, each rod and cone corres- ponding to a facet. Dr. Hicks combated the state- ment which is so frequently made in books, that each of these facets represented a distinct eye, maintaining that such statements were not in accordance with recent microscopic investigation. After referring to the manner in which the retina of the higher animals is developed, he said no one could fail to be struck with the similarity and agreement in the fundamental plan of structure that exists between the layer of rods and cones of the retina (Jacob's membrane) and the arthropod eye. He showed by a series of diagrams the rods and cones of the fish, the bird, the amphibian, and the mammal, the similarity between these structures and the rods and cones of the compound eye being very striking. To his mind there was no question but that the rods and cones of the vertebrate eye have been originally derived from the crystaline cone and nerve rod of the arthropod eye. At the conclusion of the paper, a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to Dr. Hicks for his valuable paper, special mention being made of his admirably executed diagrams. The usual conversazione terminated the meeting. Synapta and the Frost. — The very severe frost that occurred during the winters of 1877 and 1878 seems to have destroyed the Synapta that were formerly readily procured in the mud banks oft Holywood, on Co. Down side of Belfast Harbour. There is great difficulty in getting good specimens now, but we hope the coming summer will help to restore this interesting family. I have a few duplicate slides and will be glad to supply any of my former correspondents who were disappointed last exchange.. — William Gray, Belfast. Painting on Satin. — Your correspondent, S. G. R., will find, if he uses white of egg instead of water when painting on satin, that it will make it easier for the colour to adhere. When the painting is finished and dry, paint it all over with the white of egg, which for both purposes should be slightly liquid. — L. F. R. 88 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. ZOOLOGY. Destruction of the Phylloxera. — M. Pasteur has recently suggested that the destruction of the Phylloxera might be accomplished by inoculation ■with some microscopic fungus, and the Academy of Sciences, Paris, have invited the attention of naturalists to this subject. A Natural History Society for the Isle ■OF Man. — We are glad to see that an attempt is •being made to organise a natural history society in the Isle of Man. A nucleus has already been formed, with Mr. E. Birchall, F.L.S., the well-known ento- mologist, as President. There is no better British locality for the pursuit of natural history generally than this little island, so well known to naturalists as the birth-place of Professor Edward Forbes. The Deal-Fish.— We have been informed by a correspondent that a specimen of the deal-fish (Trachyptems arcticus), the occurrence of which on the Norfolk coast we noticed in our February number, has been obtained near Whitby. The specimen, which was left by the tide among the rocks, was about 1 6 feet long. Dr. Fleming describes several which were cast up at Sanda, Orkney ; they were about 3 feet to 4J feet in length. These fish are very rare, keeping out in deep water ; they only approach the shore in Iceland, where the bottom is sandy, and not steep. The deal-fish are provided with ventral fins (contrary to the old opinion), but these are very delicate, and when the fish is captured they are usually destroyed. Their absence, from this cause, led naturalists for a long time to imagine the ventral fins were wanting. The body is compressed, or sword- blade-like throughout more than half of its own length. There are two species of this genus found in the Mediterranean. Skin Preserving.— In the paper on this subject, published last month, for "arms" (p. 54, col. 1, par. 3, line 5 ; and par. 4, line 1,) read "anus," and for " back " (p. 54, col. 2, par. 3, line 4), read "beak." The Needle-tailed Swift. — Mr. G. B. Corbin in the " Zoologist," reports that a specimen of this rare bird was shot in Hampshire, July 27, 1879. This is only the second time that it has been found in Western Europe ; the first time it was also seen in England, at Great Horkesley, near Colchester, in July 1846. Air-bladders in Fish. — A paper on this subject has been read before the Cotteswold Naturalists' Field Club, by Mr. Francis Day, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Mr. Day remarks that few among the organs in fishes have been the cause of so much discussion as the air-bladder, which is a single or variously divided sac, situated beneath the vertebral column and the kidneys, and placed above the centre of gravity. As the air- bladder is sometimes present or absent in species of the same genus, it is evident it is not entirely indis- pensable to the fish's existence. It originates as an offshoot from the stomach, which offshoot elongates and then enlarges at its extremity into what is termed the air-bladder. In the Dipnoids the air-bladder communicates with the oesophagus during life, and the functions of the air-bladder are analogous to those of lungs. In Amia, a ganoid fish, it has also a lung- like function, but in Acipenser it is used merely for hydrostatic purposes. The air-bladders, however, are not considered as lungs in most fishes, since the blood is supplied to them from the adjacent arteries, and in many cases returns as venous blood into the circula- tion. In Lepidosiren, however, in consequence of the non-development of gills on the two inferior branchial arches, the blood is not arterialised there, but passes 0:1 to the air-bladder for this purpose. The Lepido- sirens doubtless are the highest known form of living fish, forming a transitional link between amphibia and fishes. The chief use of the air-bladder in Teleostean fishes is : (1) Hydrostatic ; (2) Acoustic ; it being partially, or entirely, employed for hearing by means of various modes of connection with the internal ear. In the Physoclisti or Physostomi the air- bladder occurs as a closed sac. In the marine forms of these orders, a tubular prolongation itself passes forward to the anterior portion of the skull to establish an auditory communication, but in the freshwater species the connection is formed by a chain of auditory ossicles. In conclusion, Mr. Francis Day says the air-bladder in fishes is the homologue of the lung of the superior vertebrate forms, and that in some of the higher sub-classes it serves as an accessory respiratory organ. BOTANY. Respiration of Plants. — I have been somewhat bewildered by a paragraph on the above subject which I have met with in Sach's "Text-Book of Botany," and which upsets all my preconceived notions on the subject. The paragraph in question will be found at page 644 of the English edition, and runs as follows : " The respiration of plants consists, as in animals, in the continual absorption of atmospheric oxygen into the tissues, where it causes oxidation of the assimi- lated substances, and other chemical changes result- ing from this. The formation and exhalation of carbon dioxide — the carbon resulting from the de- composition of organic compounds — may always be directly observed ; the production of water at the expense of the organic substance in consequence of the process of respiration is inferred from a com- parison of the analysis of germinating seeds with the composition of those which have not yet germinated. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 8 9 Experiments on vegetation show that growth and the metastasis in the tissues necessarily connected with it, only takes place so long as oxygen can penetrate from without into the plant. In an atmosphere devoid of oxygen no growth takes place ; and if the plant remain for any time in such an atmosphere it finally perishes. The more energetic the growth and the chemical changes in the tissues, the larger is the quantity of oxygen absorbed and of carbon dioxide exhaled ; hence it is especially in quickly germinating seeds and in unfolding leaf and flower buds that energetic respiration has been observed ; such organs consume in a short time many times their own volume of oxygen in the production of carbon dioxide." Is not this experiment of placing a plant in an atmosphere devoid of oxygen somewhat delusive ? As all the carbon contained in the atmosphere exists in the form of carbon dioxide, I do not quite see how it would be possible to deprive an atmosphere of all its oxygen without eliminating the carbon also, and as it is now supposed that plants derive all their carbon from this source, of course this would be fatal to the growth of the plant in itself. On the other hand, if the carbon dioxide remained, and the experiment were conducted in sunlight, we may be quite sure that the plant, if it contained chlorophyll, would absorb the carbon dioxide and would constantly liberate oxygen, so that if the atmosphere contained no free oxygen at starting, it would not long remain in that condition. That the tissues of every plant contain plenty of free oxygen is well known, but I imagined it was equally well known that this oxygen was derived, chiefly at all events, from the decomposition of compounds containing oxygen, such as water, carbon dioxide, and many other compounds contained in the plant. In the case of germinating seeds and flower-buds, every one knows that they absorb oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide, but I always thought it was universally conceded that this is caused by the conversion of starch into sugar, and is in fact a kind of combustion, a part of the carbon contained in the starch uniting with the oxygen of the air to form carbon dioxide, and not connected in any way with the phenomenon of respiration. Besides, in these parts of the plant assimilation of carbon is not going on, at least I have hitherto thought not. They are expending their substance, not producing it, whereas, if I understand Sach aright, he means to tell us that this process is continually going on in the leaves side by side with the contrary process of assimilating carbon from the air ; in other words, that leaves of plants are con- tinually engaged in taking in carbon dioxide and giving out oxygen, and in taking in oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide at one and the same time, which seems to me a curious conclusion to arrive at. I should be much obliged if you or some other botanist would kindly enlighten my ignorance on this point. — Colonel Dick ins, Winchester. Specific Names of British Plants.— There are many specific names, which are nouns in the genitive singular or plural, as Capsella Bursa-pastoris (purse of the shepherd), Dipsacus jullonum (the teasle of the fullers), Convolvulus sepium (convolvulus of the hedges), Vicia sepium (tare of the hedges). The genus Campanula has examples of all the three genders ; thus, Campanula patula, C. trachelium, C. rapunculus. How is this ? It is against some of our school rules, though of course there are exceptions to every rule, and after all the great master (Linne) may be right. — J. F. R. The Naturalised Plants in South Aus- tralia. — Dr. Richard Schomburgk has recently pub- lished a small pamphlet on this subject. Among the plants mentioned are the following European species : Common Fumitory {Fumaria officinalis), Common Shepherd's-purse (Capsella Bursa-pastoris), Hedge Mustard (Sisymbrium officinale), Common and Narrow-leaved Pepper-wort (Lepidiuni sativum), Watercress {Nasturtium officinale), Common Winter Cress (Barbarca vulgaris), Chickweed (Stellaria media), Thyme-leaved Sandwort (Arenaria serpilli- folia), Common Mouse-ear Chickweed (Cerastium vulgatum), Corn Spurry (Spergula arvensis), Oleraceus Purslane, Heron's Bill (Erodium cicutarium), White Clover ( Trifolium repens), Common Clover ( Trifolium pratense), Small-flowered Melilot (Mchlotns pand- florus), Lucerne (Medicago sativa), Toothed Medick (Medicago denticulata), Common Vetch ( Vicia sativa), Common Fennel (Fceniculum vulgare), Scotch Thistle (Onopordon Acanthium), Variegated Thistle (Cardials Marianus), Goatsbeard (Tragopogon porrifolius). Chicory (dehor ium Intybus), Common Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), Golden Corn-flower (Chrysan- themum segetum), Sow-thistle (Sonchus asper), Rough-leaved Sow-thistle (Sonchus oleraceus), Corn- field Sow-thistle (Sonchus arvensis), Red-flowered Pimpernel (A nagallis arvensis), CornGromwell(Z?V/^^- spermum arvense), Blackberried Nightshade (Solanum nigrum), Common Henbane (Hyoscyamus 'niger), Ribgrass (Plantago lanceolata), Knotgrass (Polygonum aviculare), Sheep's Sorrel (Rumex Acetosella), Com- mon and Small Nettle (Urtica urens and Urtica dioica), Black Oat (Avena sativa), Darnel Grass (Lolium temulenlum), Wild Oat-grass (Avena fatua), Early flowering Hairgrass (Aira preecox), Sweet- scented Spring-grass (Anthoxanthum odoraium), Cocksfoot Panic (Panicum Crus-galli), Creeping Dog's-tooth Grass (Cynodium Dactylon), Annual Meadow-grass (Poa annua), Rye-grass (Lolium perenne), Rough Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomeratus), Floating Foxtail-grass (Alopecurus geniculatus), Wall Barley (Hordeum murianum), Small and Great- spiked Quaking-grass (Briza minor and Briza maxima), Barren Blooming-grass {Bromus sterilis), Downy Rye (Bromus commutatus), Soft Brown Grass (Bromus mollis), Hard Fescue-grass (Festuca durius- 9o HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. cula and Festuca bromoides), Small Canary-grass (Phalaris minor and Phalaris canariensis), and Cat's-tail Kceleria (A'aieria phleoides). Ranunculus Ophioglossifolius. — Should not R. Ophioglossifolius be omitted from our lists of British plants ? St. Peter's Marsh, Jersey, where it was found by Professor Babington, no longer exists : it was drained some years back. A friend, residing at St. Helier's, tells me that he watched the last patch of the plant growing smaller and smaller till it finally disappeared altogether. I believe it has never been found elsewhere in the Channel Islands. On the other hand, should not Centaurea paniculata be added to our lists ? It appears firmly established on the west coast of Jersey, growing, with C. aspera, on low sandy hillsides, between St. Owen's Pond, and the northern extremity of the bay. — IV. H. y., Uppingham. British Roses. — We hope to give a paper on this subject in the May number, with illustrative S23ecies in each of Baker's groups. Bisexual Catkins of Salix Caprea. — In my rambles the early part of last year, I found a small tree of Salix Caprea with the whole of the catkins bisexual. The like may have been observed by botanists, but I believe it is not of frequent occur- rence. — A. Carr. On Alternate Development in Adoxa. — During the spring of 1879, when making observations on the sequence of the ripening of anthers, a number of plants of Tuberous Moschatel (Adoxa Moschatellina) were kept on hand, in order to note any peculiarity in the development of the flowers. The inflorescence of this species is capitate, on a long peduncle, and consists typically of one terminal floret and four lateral ones, the latter arranged symmetrically round the axis, and are inferior to the former. Occasionally one or two minute florets are inserted between the lateral ones, and slightly superior to them. Several hundreds of plants, from various localities, were at different times kept under observation, from which it was found that the order of development in all cases is uniform, and that it has some analogy to the alternate development of anthers, of which a brief account appeared in the March number of Science-Gossip. The terminal floret invariably opens first, and after- wards the four lateral ones expand in alternate order. Accordingly the order of expansion of the five florets that make up the inflorescence, may be expressed thus 4 1 5 or 5 1 4, and so far as could be observed there 3 2 is no instance of a successive development which might 3 be expressed by the formula, 214. The anthers are 5 in four or five pairs, or probably the filaments are bifurcate, and bear a peltate, one-celled anther on each branch ; but the ripening of the anthers was in such rapid succession that it baffled one's efforts to note the exact order in which it occurred. Possibly the development of the terminal capitulum of Petdsites vulgaris, which always expands first, may be analogous to the fact that the axial flora in Adoxa opens before the lateral ones. As the season is rapidly approach- ing when the tuberous Moschatel will again be in blossom, some of the readers of Science-Gossip may possibly be interested sufficiently in the matter to note the development for themselves. The plant is not rare, although probably often overlooked because it is so inconspicuous. It is abundant in south Bedfordshire and north Hertfordshire, where it is usually found on the outskirts of woods, in small plantations, and by old hedgerows. Its time of blossoming is April and May. — J. Saunders. The Butterfly Orchis. — I should like to call the attention of your botanical readers to the arrangement of the pollen in the pollinia of this flower. The pollen mass is a spiral spring, and within its folds the pollen is secreted. It is easy to draw this spring out to a considerable length, and on letting it go again the pollen falls out in showers. As I have not seen this fact mentioned in any of the smaller works on botany, I think it possible that many of your readers may not be aware of it. — C. LIST OF "LOCAL FLORAS" OF THE BRITISH ISLES. [Continued from page 59.] Devon. Mosses of, and Cornwall. Lichens and scale mosses- of ditto, both by E. M. Holmes, F.L.S. Plymouth. Nat. Hist. Soc. Trans. Kent. Lichens of, by E. M. Holmes, F.L.S. Hepaticse of, by the same, may be obtained from the author, 30 Arthur Road, Holloway, London, W. Tapton Elms, Sheffield. BERNARD HOBSON. GEOLOGY. Geological and Geographical Survey of the United States Territories. — We have received Nos. 2 and 3, vol. v. of the " Bulletin of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories," which contain, amongst other matter, articles on "The Laramie Group of Western Wyoming and Adjacent Regions," by A. C. Peale, M.D. 5 and "On the Extinct Species of Rhinoceridre of North America and their Allies," by E. D. Cope ; also " Palteontological Papers," as follow : Remarks upon HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. Qi certain Carboniferous Fossils from Colorado, Arizona, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming, and certain Cretaceous Corals from Colorado, together with descriptions of New Forms, by C. A. White, M.D. Artificial Diamonds. — A short time ago we gave a brief notice of Mr. Mactear's unsuccessful attempt to produce artificial diamonds. In spite of Mr. Mactear's failure another attempt has been made (also at Glasgow) by Mr. J. B. Hannay, and this time with a more or less successful result. Professor Story Maskelyne (to whom Mr. Hannay's artificial diamonds were submitted for examination), says, that from the results of the tests he applied he has no doubt that they are genuine diamonds. There is no doubt whatever that Mr. Hannay has succeeded in solving this problem and removing from the science of chemistry an opprobrium so long adhering to it. Mr. Hannay's process involves the simul- taneous application of enormous pressure, probably many tons to the square inch, and a very high temperature. As the process is an exceedingly expensive one, jewellers need not for the present be alarmed as to the result, as it costs more to make them than they are worth. Discovery of Diatoms in the London Clay. — The discovery of diatoms in the London clay by Mr. \V. H. Shrubsole, F.G.S., which when first an- nounced was received with some incredulity, has now been fully confirmed. Blocks of clay with the diatoms in situ have been exhibited at meetings of various societies, and have also been submitted to some of the most eminent microscopists, who have all reported favourably. Mr. F. Kitton and several other gentlemen are rendering valuable assistance in examining the diatoms. The bulk of these interesting objects are filled with iron pyrites, so that they can only be examined as opaque objects. When viewed by reflected light with one-inch objective and B or C eyepiece, they appear like beautiful golden medal- lions. Among the lighter particles of the clay are found whole and broken valves, that have had but a film of pyrites deposited upon them ; to these the highest powers can be applied with good effect. By careful treatment with dilute acid, the pyrites can be removed, so that the silicious framework is left trans- lucent. This result is so far satisfactory, as it demon- strates that the silex has not been replaced by ferric sulphide but only covered and obscured. Unfortu- nately the valves get somewhat broken up in the process. About twenty species have already been identified : the genus Coscinodiscus being abundantly represented by large and beautiful forms belonging to several species. Arachnoidiscus occurs rather sparingly. There are some new species, and for the first that was observed Mr. Kitton suggests the name of Actitiocydus Eos. Many other new forms will probably be detected. Besides diatoms, Polycystina, Xanthidia, and some curious forms whose affinities are unknown, have also been found. Mr. Shrubsole reports that he has traced the diatomaceous zone for many miles, and that he is still pursuing the inquiry. NOTES AND QUERIES. Falconry. — In reply to the query of P.M.K., I think that " Falconry in the British Isles " (1855), by Salvin and Broderick, i\s, is perhaps the best modern work on the subject. I cannot say where the hood, jesses, and complete furniture of a falcon may be obtained. — F. W. Pliilips. Vipers and their Young.— On October 25 of last year, my brother killed a female viper, when to his great astonishment eleven fully developed young ones, about six inches long, came tumbling out of the breach made by the blow (about eight inches from the head), and tried to make their escape, they had all the appearance of having seen daylight before. The question naturally arises — had they on seeing danger approach, sought refuge in the interior of the dam ? The Rev. Gilbert White, in his "Natural History of Selborne," relates a somewhat similar circumstance. He says : — " On August 4, 1775, we surprised a large viper which seemed very heavy and bloated as it lay in the grass, basking in the sun. When we came up to it we found that the abdomen was crowded with young, fifteen in number ; the shortest of which measured full seven inches in length, and were about the size of full grown earth-worms. . . There is little room to suppose that this brood had ever been in the open air before, and that they were taken in for refuge, at the mouth of the dam, when she perceived that danger was approaching ; because then, prob- ably we should have found them somewhere in the neck, and not in the abdomen." In a letter ad- dressed to Thomas Pennant, Esq., he says : — " Several intelligent folks assure me that they have seen the viper open her mouth and admit her helpless young down her throat on sudden surprise." The Rev. J. G. Wood, in his "Illustrated Natural History," says : — "It is asserted that when danger threatens, the female viper opens her mouth and permits her brood to hide themselves, but this is by no means an ascertained fact." I am told that Dr. Frank Buckland has offered a reward of ^20 to any one who can prove that such is the case. A farmer with whom I am intimately acquainted says that when he was a young man, he came suddenly upon a viper, and was utterly dumfounded at seeing five young ones spring down her throat ; he was quite indignant if any one doubted it, and declares that he had never before heard nor read of such a thing. Another farmer informed me the other day that his brother saw a similar circumstance some years ago, and called his attention to it, they went immediately to the spot and killed the viper, finding the young in it. It is not at all likely that so many people would make such assertions, if there were no grounds for them. If any of the readers of Science-Gossip have seen such an interesting phenomenon, perhaps they would communicate the fact. — y. y. Gulls Inland. — Several gulls have lately been seen in the immediate neighbourhood of Cambridge. A goosander also paid us a visit a short time ago, but I regret to have to report that it met with the inhospitable reception usually accorded to all un- 02 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. common feathered visitants — being ruthlessly shot. The same fate also, I am sorry to say, befel half-a- dozen of the gulls. — Albert H. Waters, B.A. Cam- bridge. Ants and their Pupa. — Can any one who has watched the movements and habits of ants inform me whether they compete with each other for the honour of carrying their pupa (sometimes erroneously called ants' eggs) to and fro between the interior and the exterior of the nest ? Eminent naturalists have told us that they bring their larva and pupa out into the sunshine frequently, and with incredible labour, and i I am desirous of knowing if the labourers appear eager or otherwise for this work. — Emmet. Query about Eggs. — As a young collector, I want to know whether any of your readers would be so kind as to inform me of the names of two eggs. One is white about the size of a robin's, slightly mottled with red, with a bright red band across the [ top, and found in a hedge. The other is a blue one, I slightly mottled with red, long and rather bigger than a green-finch's, with a bright red band round the top. If any person would be so kind as to let me know, I should be much obliged. — J. G. R. L>., Suffolk. Wren's Nest at Christmas. — Were the eggs fresh, or was it a last season's nest with forsaken ones ? — J . Steel, Greenock. Can Flowers while drying be prevented from losing their Colour? — I shall be much obliged if any of your correspondents will inform me how to prevent flowers while drying from losing their colour, or of any work on the subject. — R. B. L. Works on Falconry. — In reply to the inquiry by P. M. K. in the January number of Science- Gossip respecting falconry, the best work on the subject is "Falconry in the British Isles," by Salvin and Brodrich, published by Van Voorst, Paternoster Row.— S. C. H. Noise made by Water Snails. — I think if C. F. P., Weymouth, will observe closely, he will find that the noise he mentions is caused by the snail drawing the shell against the glass as he moves up the sides of the aquarium ; I have known several similar cases. — S. C. H. Ages of Stags. — The antlers give a very fair idea of the age of stags ; they never increase much in weight after seven or eight years of age. At about twelve years the horns begin to diminish in weight. I have known several stags look very old at fifteen or sixteen years, and they have generally died before they have reached the age of twenty years. Fallow deer do not live so long. — S. C. IT. Cuckoos denuded of Feathers. — About ten years ago an intimate friend of mine, living in Somersetshire, reared up a young cuckoo, which was taken from the nest of a dunnock {Accentor modularis). Early in September its cage was found open, and all search for the prisoner proved futile. One day, however, about the middle of winter, when moving the rubbish from an unoccupied room, the fugitive was discovered huddled together in a corner sur- rounded by its own feathers, which had been shed, the bird itself being covered only with a kind of down. Soon after being disturbed it succumbed to the demands of Mors. — T. J. Lane. To preserve Birds'-Eggs. — With reference to E. P.'s query in Science-Gossip for January last, relative to the preserving of birds' -eggs, I would mention the following as at least equal to, if not better than any other with which I am acquainted : The shells being emptied of their contents, and the interiors well washed with water, should be rinsed out with a saturated solution of perchloride of mercury (Corrosive sublimate) in spirit of wine, then placed near a fire till perfectly dry. Now take the albu- minous portion of a fresh egg, and with a camel's hair pencil apply it as a varnish to the whole of the outside, excepting a small space on which it may rest whilst drying, in order that it might not become cemented to the material on which it is placed to diy. When quite dry the hole or holes should be covered by means of thin gummed paper. They are now ready for the cabinet, and if placed in a moder- ately dry locality, will both escape mould and retain their colour much more perfectly than when unvar- nished. Some eggs, such as those of the Falconidce, Strigidae, and Laridre, require a second coat, the former one being absorbed through the loose texture of the shells. Care should be taken not to allow the mercurial solution to run over the exterior, or the colour will be destroyed. — T. J. Lane. Curious Freak. — A neighbour showed me the other day a white bantam hen which is about five years old, lays regularly, and has brought up chickens ; this year it has moulted like a cock and crows. You could not observe any difference between it and a cock of the same species. I have seen a duck with drake plumage. — S. A. B. Popular Names. — In the interest of beginners, like myself, I should like to see more frequent use made of the popular names of plants and animals in the pages of Science-Gossip. It is always easy to add the scientific name in parenthesis, and the papers are then intelligible to outsiders as well as the initiated. I appeal more particularly to our able botanical contributors, for surely it is in every sense a loss when we bid farewell to the old familiar names of our country's flora, many of which are so poetic, others historic, but all expressive, and full of pleasant associations. Numerous articles on botany can only be understood by a beginner at the cost of laborious reference, simply because the English names are not quoted. True, such reference is first-rate educational exercise, but everybody has not the inclination for it, and the general reader cannot be expected to attempt it. Moreover, I think, that the use of the scientific and popular names side by side is more likely than anything else to impress upon the mind the indi- viduality of the plant. — Sciolist. Fleas in Hedgehogs. — I have read with some interest the various remarks concerning fleas in hedgehogs. I have repeatedly noticed these creatures are infested with them, and the last one I found and brought home was literally swarming with these parasites, and the handkerchief I carried him in must have had a dozen at least left on it when I took the hedgehog out. The creature was perfectly healthy, but it was unpleasant having him even in a garden, and I was only too glad early to restore him to the hill-top where he was found. — Hamilton James. How TO MOUNT Mosses. — Could any bryologist furnish a short account as to the best mode of mount- ing mosses for the Herbarium, other than those given by Dr. Braithwaite in "Notes on Collecting and Preserving Natural History Objects ?"— J. R. M. Dissolving and thickening Dyes. — I have been trying to make some ink to use with the Chromo- HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. 93 graph (alias Polyautograph, &c.) from aniline dye. With mauve I have succeeded, but with red my attempts have been an almost complete failure. I merely added water to the dyes. The mauve would take sixty copies, but the red and green dyes did not seem sufficiently soluble in water. Can you tell me what I ought to dissolve them in, and, moreover, whether I ought to add sugar or gum to thicken the ink ?— York. Yew Berries. — I trust that no reader of Science- Gossip will venture to eat yew berries, although Dipton Burn says they can be taken with im- punity, for the poison is in the seeds, not in the pulp of the fruit ; and if the seeds are swallowed, and the shell of any get between, so that the gastric juice can act on them, the consequences will most probably be very serious. — Helen Watney. The largest Tree in the World. — In Nelson's ' ' Scientific and Technical Reader, " there is an account, abridged from Hutching's "Scenes and Wonders in California," of a grove of trees, at least one of which exceeds the tree quoted in your last number in height, and several of which exceed it in diameter. I extract the following from Nelson's "Mammoth Tree Grove :" — This grove is situated on the watershed between the San Antonia branch of the Calaveras River, and the North fork of the Stanislaus River, in lat. 38 and long. 120° 10' west, at an elevation of 4370 feet above the sea level, and at a distance of ninety- seven miles from Sacramento city and eighty-seven from Stockton. From specimens of the wood, cones and foliage, Professor Lindley, England, considered it as forming a new genus and named it ' ' Wellingtonia gigantea," but Mr. Lobb, who had spent several years in California, and had devoted himself to this branch of study, decided it to belong to the " Taxo- dium " family, and referred it to the old genus " Sequoia semj>ervirens." It is now generally known as Sequoia gigantea, popularly called " Wellingtonia," and by the Americans " Washingtonia gigantea." Within an area of fifty acres, there are 103 large trees, twenty of which exceed 25 feet in diameter, and are consequently over 75 ^ ee ^ m circumference. The " Father of the Forest," the largest of the group, lies prostrate and half buried in the soil ; it measures at the root no feet in circumference, is 200 feet to the first branch, and from the trees which were broken by its fall is estimated to have been 435 feet in length ; 300 feet from the roots it is 18 feet in diameter. The "Big Tree " was bored off some years since with pump augers and then wedged down ; the stump, which stands 55 feet above the soil, is sound to the core, and has been used as a ball room. This tree was 96 feet in circumference at the ground, and 302 feet high. The " Mother of the Forest " was stripped of its bark in 1854, for exhibition in the New England States, and now measures, without the bark, 84 feet in cir- cumference, 70 feet up it is 39J feet (also without the bark), its height is 321 feet. The " Burnt Tree," prostrate, is estimated to have been 300 feet high when standing, and is 97 feet in circumference, it measures 39^ feet across the roots. "Hercules "is 95 feet in circumference, and 320 feet high. The "Pioneer's Cabin," broken off 150 feet from the ground, measures 39 feet in diameter, but owing to its being hollow, and its surface uneven, its average is not quite equal to that. Fourteen other trees average 291 feet high, and 78J feet in circumference. It is estimated, from the number of concentric layers of wood in these trees, each layer of which is supposed to be the growth of a single year, that their age is almost 3000 years, considerably younger than the one on exhibition. This grove is also described in an amusing manner by T. W. Hinchliff, M.A., F.R.G.S., in his " Over the Sea and Far Away," 1876. From his account, the trees occupy a belt 3200 feet long, and 700 wide, which contains from 90 to 100 sequoias of large size, the highest is 325 feet, and the diameter of one (which I think must be the " Big Tree ") is 27 feet. At 6 feet from the ground, he says, the survey party counted the rings of this section, and found the number to be 1255 : this tree, he thinks, is one of the finest in the grove. It is probable that " Old Moses " is one of this group, or at any rate a " Wel- lingtonia," and that the "New York Herald" has got his age a little too "big." — Thomas Wi>ider, Sheffield. The Geology of Hayes Common. — In reply to the query of J. R. S. C, in Science-Gossip, No. 181, with reference to the remains of British pit-dwellings at Hayes, I beg to say that he is wrong in his supposition that they bear any resemblance to "Dane holes." The remains of pit-dwellings are sometimes called hut circles, since they are probably the sites of wooden huts which have been encircled by a low mound of earth excavated from the floor of the hut. These circles at Hayes Common are nu- merous and well-defined circular depressions varying in diameter from 7 feet to 24 feet, and in greatest depth from 4 inches to 2 feet. The number has been roughly estimated at about 150. Scattered around these hut circles I have found several worked flint implements, which clearly indicate that this neigh- bourhood at some time was the residence of our primitive ancestors. The presence of these flints is all the more remarkable from the fact of no chalk flints, such as those of which the implements are formed, occurring naturally on Hayes Common (see Science-Gossip, No. '178, p. 217). At the same time we have no evidence that this was the site of a very extensive settlement. We are told by Strabo that temporary buildings were erected by the Britons for themselves and their cattle, and such a settlement this may have been at Hayes, yet from its vicinity to the British Camp at Holvvood Park, Keston, and also from the discovery of many wrought flints of beautiful workmanship in the adjoining parish of West Wickham, it may be that the British settlement on Hayes Common was more important than we might at first suppose. In reference to J. R. S. C.'s remarks respecting the use of the so-called "Dane holes," I certainly fail to see the probability of his supposition that they served either as habitations or as hiding-places. If they had been intended as habi- tations they would not require to be so deep as they are often found to be ; while if they were made by the Britons merely for hiding-places from their enemies I question if so much care would have been taken as to line the shaft with squared stone blocks, even if time had allowed. To my mind the use of these deep pits has yet to be explained : at the same time I can easily imagine some of them to have been dug by some of our earliest ancestors, for the purpose of obtaining fresh flints from the chalk — an indispensable material for the manufacture of the better class of flint implements. It has also been thought — and with some probability — that these "Dane holes" may have been used as underground granaries in which corn and other valuable commodities were kept during the winter. There can be little doubt that in many cases the shaft was the only entrance to the subterranean chamber, and descent must have been made by means of a rope or ladder of some sort. The idea of descending a smooth shaft 50 or 60 feet deep without some such apparatus could not for a 94 HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP. moment be entertained. Since the article on this subject appeared in Science-Gossip (October, 1879), I have been favoured with particulars of a well-boring on Hayes Common by Lord Sackville Cecil. The well was sunk in 1874, and is 156 feet deep. From the section exposed it appears that the strata above the chalk are about 100 feet in thickness, and the pebble-beds proper are about 80 feet thick. — Geo. Clinch. Water-cress. — Galen is said to have recom- mended this plant, Bonet, Ponteau, Schroder, and Ettmuller have likewise spoken highly of it in their writings as an antiscorbutic, and now it is used in domestic practice with very good effect by persons of a lymphatic temperament. — Helen Watney. Larv^j of the Caddis-worms. — The larva of the caddis-fly is usually supposed to be a vegetarian. I have, however, seen it noticed that it sometimes makes a meal of fish eggs ; it may, therefore, be of interest to some of your readers to learn that I have seen one of these animals feeding on a spider, and have fed several others upon beef, mutton, and fish, both raw and cooked. — G. C. Goody. Hints for a Marine Aquarium. — Having now kept a marine aquarium for some time and with wonderful success, I would be pleased to add a little of my experience to that of Mr. Dymond, but at the same time I would not suggest that a tall glass aquarium is the correct, or even a good vessel to keep marine creatures in, especially as it is very far from imitating nature ; for in nature there is only light obtained from the surface of the water, and not from all sides as in a globe. Such a quantity of light marine animals always more or less shun, as is proved by the fact that such as can move, do move to the more shady side of the vessel, or behind and under stones. If, however, a globe must be used because of its cheapness or such like, I would suggest that, besides being in a northern aspect, the portion nearest the window be covered by some screen. But if possible, I would urge all those interested in watching the life and mode of living of those wondrous organisms of the deep, to procure for themselves a slate aquarium, with only plate glass for the front, and with a shelving false bottom, which can be bought for £3. My aquarium, 3 feet long, by 2 feet wide, and 1 foot 6 inches deep, costs no more. The slate bottom lies at an angle of about 30 degrees and thus gives a very pleasing effect for the erection of rockwork, and you can see all things at a glance. Again, there is then a very large quantity of water always in the dark, which keeps the whole cool and pure, for no algae will grow there, and only one half the water is exposed to light ; by having a hole in the corner the water behind can be drawn up and syringed to the front, thus keeping up a sort of circu- lation at times. I shall be pleased to give the address to any one who would like one made like mine, at any time. To raise the effect and usefulness of the shelving bottom, I have made high ridges with Portland cement (about 1 to i| inches high), on this I put the sand, shingle, and stones, it then looks like a thorough rocky shore. As to the aerating of the water, I prefer syringing it with a large glass syringe to any other mode, for it does not disturb the sediment at the bottom, and more finely divides the particles of water than by pumping air through a tube from the bottom of the aquarium. Feeding anemones with raw beef I do not think will answer well for long, being much stronger and more likely to putrify if any is ejected and lost sight of. I think an oyster cut into fine pieces and washed in fresh water is the best possible food for anemones, or anything likely to be kept in a private aquarium. I agree with Mr. Dymond in his remark, that we should imitate nature as nearly as possible. For pleasant reading and instruction I think Mr. J. E. Taylor's book, and Mr. P. H. Gosse's are the two best, for they both seem to go heart and soul into the matter. — F. IV. H. Urticating Moths. — As an addition to the notes which have appeared in Science-Gossip on the urticating properties of certain moths, allow me to state that I am not affected in the slightest degree by the hairs of Auriflua or Chrysorrhcea. I have allowed the larvae to crawl on my hands, face, and neck, and not the least irritation was produced. It would be in- teresting to know the various ways in which persons are affected in a more or less degree. — IV. H. New- berry, Exeter. Insects at Bournemouth.— Last year I spent my holi 'ay at Bournemouth, so I give a short account of some of the insects I took there, as it may be of interest to some of your readers. I was there the last week in July and the first fortnight in August. L. sEgon was very common, in fact it was the only Lycaena I saw except Alexis, of which I caught but one specimen. Ccenonympha pamphilus and Epinephile Tithonus and Janira were to be found in abundance ; H. sylvanus was also common, and of Linea I caught two. V. cardni appeared on the 3rd of August, and was to be seen sparingly till the 14th, when it ap- peared suddenly in hundreds all over the district, especially in the West Cliff, where I could have caught any quantity by just standing still and waving my net to and fro. Simultaneously with the Cardui appeared an immense swarm of P. gamma, and it is rather underrating it (if anything) to say that they were in thousands everywhere ; quantities were on the shore drowned ; in fact on the 14th of August there was scarcely any other insect to be seen except these two, and the commons resounded with their hum. From the diary of a friend living at Teign- mouth, I see that there was also a large swarm of .P. gamma and V. car did there in August, 1879, and I had sent me from there in October about a dozen larvae of V. cardui, all of which I succeeded in rearing, the last imago coming out on the 13th of December. They remained in the pupae state sixteen or seventeen days. I kept them in a well-warmed greenhouse, as they so frequently die when allowed to hybernate. But to return to Bournemouth, I caught a few fine specimens of S. Semele, but they were not so common as the above. On the 12th of August I was in the New Forest, but as I was driving I did not make many captures, I caught one L. Sibylla, and saw several which we disturbed as we drove along : how very handsome they look flying on the outskirts of the woods. I only saw one Paphia there and that was a very fine specimen. Agrotis, Putris, and Porphyrea, I caught sparingly. Hadena mono- glypha was also to be found. Anarta myrtilli was not uncommon. Nemoria viridata was common, so was Pseudopterpiia cythisaria, the two latter being found more commonly on the West Cliff than else- where. I obtained one specimen of both Acidalia strain in a/a and imitaria. Phasiane palumbaria was very common among the heather. Fidonia atto- maria were to be caught plentifully. Nomophila hybridalis was common. I obtained one specimen of Crambus Warringtonellus, also one of Phycis palum- baria, both of which were scarce. Endotricha fra- mialis was to be